Esie Soapstone
Soapstone head 12th-15th century. This is a soapstone head collected by a German ethnographer and explorer, leo Frobenius in 1912 in the town of offa near Esie.
Soapstone female figure 12th -15th century. This is one of the largest of the stone carvings. The cutlass that she once held in her right hand and which rested against her shoulder is missing. The strong vertical line on her back and head and the ease with which she sits on her stool with her feet stuck back in its base form the pose of one with authority.
Seated figure 12th – 15th century. An Esie female stone figure, holding a cutlass, that rest on her right shoulder. The elaborate hairstyle consisting of a cluster of triangular or conical tuft is typical of female sculptures. The horizontal rows of three delicately incised marks on the head are found on male and female Esie sculptures.
Seated male 12th -15th century. An Esie male seated figure showed reaching for his quiver. Below the conical hat, the hair styled in the fashion of a woman. The three horizontal marks appear on the temple stone.
Seated male figure 12th -15th century. An Esie seated male figure holding a dagger in his lab. He appears too been wearing an elaborate headdress consisting of shapes resembling four snail shells affixed to a striated conical cap.
Seated female figure 12th – 15th century. An Esie female figure holding a cutlass. The cutlass rests against her right shoulder as a symbol of her office. The delicate scarification marks on her forehead and the heavier marks incised on her chin. The height of her elaborate coiffure is equal to that of her face, emphasizing the importance of the head, typical of so many Esie and later Yoruba figure sculptures.
Seated female figure 12th – 15th century. This is back view of a seated female figure. Four vertical rows of body scarification along the spine which then splay out in a pattern above the waistband of her skirt, t5he vstool consisting of two circular disks connected by a cylinder is typical of most Esie carvings.
Seated male figure 12th – 15th century. The sculpture although a fragment is remarkable among Esie carvings for the rendering of the head, elongation of the jaw line, and the thrust of the chin which is enhanced by the projection of the beard.
Seated male figure 12th – 15 th century. This is one of the largest of the Esie stone carvings, the sculpture of a seated male figure contrasts with other Esie sculptures. It conveys a sense of physical strength and there is an absence of bodily adornment apart from the necklace of the beads and the bow laying the skirt.
Seated male figure. This is one of the largest of the Esie stone carvings
Soapstone figure. This is one of the 800 stone figures found in a bush shrine in northern Yoruba land, where they are still objects of cult. Although its not yet known whether they are of Yoruba origin or whether they were made by Nupe before their conversion to Islam, though there is some internal evidence of Yoruba connections.
Soapstone figure. This is one of the most impressive Esie work of art. It is among the 800 others found in a bush shrine in northern Yoruba land
Soapston figure. This is probably from a figure of a life size. A larger proportion of the heads are broken from their bodies, but this piece does not confirm to the Esie style. It has more affinity with soapstone carvings of the past century or two at Ife about 40 miles to the south on the forehead a dagger is carved in redlief..
Saturday, June 20, 2009
Igbo-ukwu
Bronze roped pot on a stand. This is a leaded bronze pot from Igbo Isaiah, Igbo-ukwu. It was dated to about 9th/10th century.
Bronze vessel in the form of a shell surmounted by an animal dated 9th/10 century.
Bronze pendant representing a ram’s head dated 9th/10th century.
Bronze ornate staff head dated 9th /10th century.
Bronze cylindrical staff dated 9th/10th century.
Copper spiral snake ornament dated 9th /10th century.
Bronze scabbard dated 9th/10 century.
Bronze bowl from Igbo Isaiah in Igbo-ukwu dated 9th.10 century.
Bronze vessel in the form of a shell surmounted by an animal dated 9th/10 century.
Bronze pendant representing a ram’s head dated 9th/10th century.
Bronze ornate staff head dated 9th /10th century.
Bronze cylindrical staff dated 9th/10th century.
Copper spiral snake ornament dated 9th /10th century.
Bronze scabbard dated 9th/10 century.
Bronze bowl from Igbo Isaiah in Igbo-ukwu dated 9th.10 century.
Benin Art Corpus
Bronze head: - this was dated to about b1500AD or a little earlier. The sensitive naturalism of Ife bronze where Benin bronze was thought to have been derived, though some features notably the ears are more styled than Ife bronze. The miniature head which is a unique piece was dated to about half a century or more later.
Bronze heads. This was dated from the end of the early period about the mid sixteenth century. It has rectangular strings of iron inlay, a mark of early period are also present.
Bronze Queen Mother Head. This is a title conferred on his mother by the Oba three years after his accession since the time of Esigie in the early sixteenth century.
Bronze head {Uhumwelao}. This particular bronze head is usually placed at the Royal altar {Aru-erha}. It is an early example of the middle period or classical style. It was dated to about 1550-1650. The head is intended to carry a great weight such as the carved tusks which is mounted on the head.
Bronze head. This was dated from early in the late period probably about 1700 or a little later.
Bronze head of the massive type, with extreme exaggeration of proportion band with flamboyant ornamentation introduced by Oba Osemwede{1816-1848}. It is the most impressive of all the version of the late style, suggesting a fine artistic work.
Fragmented bronze. {Aegis}. This was dated from the transition between the early and middle period and representing the Oba in his divine aspect with mudfish for legs or more specifically the fourteenth century Oba Ohen who after his legs were paralyzed claimed to have become the sea god {Olokun}. The Oba’s arms are supported by two attendant chief.
Bronze head. {Oduduwa mask}. This is used during the new yam festival in the Oba palace. It is still observed annually in the Oba’s palace with the twentieth century bronze mask in place of those removed by the British expedition. There are six known of this highly expressionist style. It was dated to about 1800.
Bronze head {Osun cult head} of the middle period {probably 20th century} surmounted by four ibis and other symbolic character with snake issuing from the nostrils and lachrymatory glands and devouring frog. It belongs to unidentified spirit of the palace. Osun the medicine spirit which personified the life force
Bronze plaque. Pair of bronze plaque of a single figure of a bini warrior. There are about 20 of this style of pair bronze plaques and they appear to be by a single hand. They were the first plaques to be made probably in the late sixteenth century.
Bronze plaque. This is a representation of Oba in a seated position on a cylindrical stool with two chief supporting his arms, one of whom is by custom his son and heir, the Edaiken. There are also Portuguese heads as symbols of his status and power. It belongs to late 16th /early 17th century.
Bronze plaque. There are seven of these known plaques which appear to be by a single artist. It is a fragmentary of a scene of a bini shooting at an ibis on a tree and leopard hunt by the Portuguese hunters.
Bronze altar. A bronze altar representing an Oba attended by two foreign slaves, male and female and behind by shield bearers. It is one of the masterpieces of the late period {about 1750-1800}.
Bronze figure. Two bronze figure of achondroplasic dwarfs, such as used to be kept as tumblers and jesters by the Obas of Benin. They are of the finest of all the Benin Bronze figures and as well as naturalistic in style.
Bronze figure. This is one the Oba’s horn blowers, a fine work of classical or middle period. The skirt is prolong in a hornlike process, stiffened with canes and rising from left hip and secure by shoulder
Bronze stool. This is one of the two solid bronze stools or thrones {Erhe} said to have been made by Oba Tresonyen in the mid eighteenth century. Their iconography is in some way untypical of Benin work. It has one motifs of a grinning human simian face while the central portion incorporates a coiled python as a royal power symbol.
Bronze pendant. A small aegis shaped bronze pendant worn at the waist. It is a presentation of one Portuguese threatening or attacking another over a leopard head. It is of the middle period.
Bronze. A bronze hip mask of transition between early and middle periods. It has a human face metamorphosed in its lower portion into an elephant’s tusk and trunk, and expressionally indicated by its turning into a hand grasping a branch.
Bronze figure. A bronze figure of a warrior armed with a sword and the Bini bow. It is a version of the middle period style.
Bronze figure. Bronze horseman of the middle period. The hat is like those worn by bodyguard of the Fulani Emirs of the northern Nigeria. These figures are commonly said to represent visitors from the north.
Bronze plaque. A bronze plaque representing a warrior seated on a horse holding a spear. The plaque is full of movement indicating a leopard hunter or a warrior in battle.
Ivory Armlets. Pair of ivory armlets, each consisting of two interlocking cylinders carved from a single block of ivory. It has the figure Oba’s carved on the outer cylinder alternate with symbolic double elephant’s skulls protruding from the inner cylinder. They are among the finest ivory of Benin armlet. It belongs to sixteenth century.
Bronze figure. A bronze figure of a man who worn a cross, which may or may not be a Christian cross. The missing right hand would have held an l-shaped iron hammer of a type sacred to Ogun, the god of iron and warfare. The figure may be a Christian convert of the sixteenth century. The Benin traditions say that such figures are emissaries either from the Oni of Ife or attah of Idah.
Bronze Python. Colossal bronze python head from the palace gate ways where it is mounted more than a dozen of these types are known. This one is probably from the middle period.
Bronze heads. This was dated from the end of the early period about the mid sixteenth century. It has rectangular strings of iron inlay, a mark of early period are also present.
Bronze Queen Mother Head. This is a title conferred on his mother by the Oba three years after his accession since the time of Esigie in the early sixteenth century.
Bronze head {Uhumwelao}. This particular bronze head is usually placed at the Royal altar {Aru-erha}. It is an early example of the middle period or classical style. It was dated to about 1550-1650. The head is intended to carry a great weight such as the carved tusks which is mounted on the head.
Bronze head. This was dated from early in the late period probably about 1700 or a little later.
Bronze head of the massive type, with extreme exaggeration of proportion band with flamboyant ornamentation introduced by Oba Osemwede{1816-1848}. It is the most impressive of all the version of the late style, suggesting a fine artistic work.
Fragmented bronze. {Aegis}. This was dated from the transition between the early and middle period and representing the Oba in his divine aspect with mudfish for legs or more specifically the fourteenth century Oba Ohen who after his legs were paralyzed claimed to have become the sea god {Olokun}. The Oba’s arms are supported by two attendant chief.
Bronze head. {Oduduwa mask}. This is used during the new yam festival in the Oba palace. It is still observed annually in the Oba’s palace with the twentieth century bronze mask in place of those removed by the British expedition. There are six known of this highly expressionist style. It was dated to about 1800.
Bronze head {Osun cult head} of the middle period {probably 20th century} surmounted by four ibis and other symbolic character with snake issuing from the nostrils and lachrymatory glands and devouring frog. It belongs to unidentified spirit of the palace. Osun the medicine spirit which personified the life force
Bronze plaque. Pair of bronze plaque of a single figure of a bini warrior. There are about 20 of this style of pair bronze plaques and they appear to be by a single hand. They were the first plaques to be made probably in the late sixteenth century.
Bronze plaque. This is a representation of Oba in a seated position on a cylindrical stool with two chief supporting his arms, one of whom is by custom his son and heir, the Edaiken. There are also Portuguese heads as symbols of his status and power. It belongs to late 16th /early 17th century.
Bronze plaque. There are seven of these known plaques which appear to be by a single artist. It is a fragmentary of a scene of a bini shooting at an ibis on a tree and leopard hunt by the Portuguese hunters.
Bronze altar. A bronze altar representing an Oba attended by two foreign slaves, male and female and behind by shield bearers. It is one of the masterpieces of the late period {about 1750-1800}.
Bronze figure. Two bronze figure of achondroplasic dwarfs, such as used to be kept as tumblers and jesters by the Obas of Benin. They are of the finest of all the Benin Bronze figures and as well as naturalistic in style.
Bronze figure. This is one the Oba’s horn blowers, a fine work of classical or middle period. The skirt is prolong in a hornlike process, stiffened with canes and rising from left hip and secure by shoulder
Bronze stool. This is one of the two solid bronze stools or thrones {Erhe} said to have been made by Oba Tresonyen in the mid eighteenth century. Their iconography is in some way untypical of Benin work. It has one motifs of a grinning human simian face while the central portion incorporates a coiled python as a royal power symbol.
Bronze pendant. A small aegis shaped bronze pendant worn at the waist. It is a presentation of one Portuguese threatening or attacking another over a leopard head. It is of the middle period.
Bronze. A bronze hip mask of transition between early and middle periods. It has a human face metamorphosed in its lower portion into an elephant’s tusk and trunk, and expressionally indicated by its turning into a hand grasping a branch.
Bronze figure. A bronze figure of a warrior armed with a sword and the Bini bow. It is a version of the middle period style.
Bronze figure. Bronze horseman of the middle period. The hat is like those worn by bodyguard of the Fulani Emirs of the northern Nigeria. These figures are commonly said to represent visitors from the north.
Bronze plaque. A bronze plaque representing a warrior seated on a horse holding a spear. The plaque is full of movement indicating a leopard hunter or a warrior in battle.
Ivory Armlets. Pair of ivory armlets, each consisting of two interlocking cylinders carved from a single block of ivory. It has the figure Oba’s carved on the outer cylinder alternate with symbolic double elephant’s skulls protruding from the inner cylinder. They are among the finest ivory of Benin armlet. It belongs to sixteenth century.
Bronze figure. A bronze figure of a man who worn a cross, which may or may not be a Christian cross. The missing right hand would have held an l-shaped iron hammer of a type sacred to Ogun, the god of iron and warfare. The figure may be a Christian convert of the sixteenth century. The Benin traditions say that such figures are emissaries either from the Oni of Ife or attah of Idah.
Bronze Python. Colossal bronze python head from the palace gate ways where it is mounted more than a dozen of these types are known. This one is probably from the middle period.
schedule monuments and site each state of Nigeria
Abia State:-
1 Chief Okochi house.
2 Obu’s house
3 Omo Oku Temple, Ndi-Ezera Compound Azaga Ohafia.
4 Chief Ochu Kalu’s house Ndi-Okereke Abam near Bende
Adamawa State:-
1 World heritage site, Suku {Hidi Palace}
Bauchi State:-
1 Rock painting site at Dutsen damisa near Gumel
2 Rock painting Dutsen Zane near Gaji
3 Rock painting Shadawanke neae Bauchi
4 Rock painting Shira Azae local Government Area.
5 Carved stone Kwandon-kaya at panshanu
6 Gidan madaki Bauchi.
Borno State:-
1 Rebel’s house Dikwa.
Cross river State:-
1 Old Residency Calabar
2 Old Consulate Calabar.
3 Chief ekpo Bassey’s house Calabar
4 Carved monoliths Emaghabe
5 Carved monoliths Alok
Delta State:-
1 Nanna’s house koko
Edo state:-
1 Chief Ogiamen Benin city
2 Chief Enogie’s house oba sagbo village near Benin
3 Benin city walls and moats
Enugu State:-
1 chief Odo- uwankolo’s palace at ukahe
Jigawa State:-
1 Dutsen mesa-gong and shelter {rock paintings birnin kudu}
2 Rock paintings Dutsen habude at Birnin kudu
3 Rock paintings morofu Birnin kudu
4 Rock paintings Dutsen Zago
Kaduna state:-
1 Steel foot bridge, kufena hill kaduna
2 Habe Mosque at maigma
3 Zaria city wall
Kano state:-
1 Gidan Makama
2 kano city wall
3 Habe Mosque at Bebeji near kano.
Katsina state:-
1 Old teacher college katsina
2 Gorbiru minaret
3 Tumuli Durbi takushayi
Kogi State:-
1 Ata Ogu tumuli
Kwara state:-
1 Dayspring relics
2 Okuta fort
3 Yashikera fort
4 Otaro stone figure
5 Ijara stone figure
Lagos state:-
1 Iloja bar
2 Oba’s house
3 water house
4 Old secretarial
5 Elephant house
6 No 10 Eleya Street Lagos Brazilian building
Niger state:-
1 Tsoede’s tomb at Gwangade
2 Ikatanbu Palace of the Esu Mohamed at bida
3 Government house at Zongori
Ogun State
1 Sungbo Shrine {groove near Oke-Eri near Ijebu}
Ondo State:-
1 Igbaraoke petroglyha
2 The palace of Deji of Akure
Osun State:-
1 Itayemoo Ile-Ife
2 Osun Shrine Oshogbo
3 Ilajo Stone figure
4 Shrine at Ate Oja Oshogbo
Plateau State:-
1 Stone Built Causeway forof
2 Tading Causeway
3 Batura Causeway
4 Kwadon Kaya
5 First Mining Beacon
River State:-
1 King Jaja Statue Opobo
Sokoto State:-
1 the ancient ruins of Surami City
1 Chief Okochi house.
2 Obu’s house
3 Omo Oku Temple, Ndi-Ezera Compound Azaga Ohafia.
4 Chief Ochu Kalu’s house Ndi-Okereke Abam near Bende
Adamawa State:-
1 World heritage site, Suku {Hidi Palace}
Bauchi State:-
1 Rock painting site at Dutsen damisa near Gumel
2 Rock painting Dutsen Zane near Gaji
3 Rock painting Shadawanke neae Bauchi
4 Rock painting Shira Azae local Government Area.
5 Carved stone Kwandon-kaya at panshanu
6 Gidan madaki Bauchi.
Borno State:-
1 Rebel’s house Dikwa.
Cross river State:-
1 Old Residency Calabar
2 Old Consulate Calabar.
3 Chief ekpo Bassey’s house Calabar
4 Carved monoliths Emaghabe
5 Carved monoliths Alok
Delta State:-
1 Nanna’s house koko
Edo state:-
1 Chief Ogiamen Benin city
2 Chief Enogie’s house oba sagbo village near Benin
3 Benin city walls and moats
Enugu State:-
1 chief Odo- uwankolo’s palace at ukahe
Jigawa State:-
1 Dutsen mesa-gong and shelter {rock paintings birnin kudu}
2 Rock paintings Dutsen habude at Birnin kudu
3 Rock paintings morofu Birnin kudu
4 Rock paintings Dutsen Zago
Kaduna state:-
1 Steel foot bridge, kufena hill kaduna
2 Habe Mosque at maigma
3 Zaria city wall
Kano state:-
1 Gidan Makama
2 kano city wall
3 Habe Mosque at Bebeji near kano.
Katsina state:-
1 Old teacher college katsina
2 Gorbiru minaret
3 Tumuli Durbi takushayi
Kogi State:-
1 Ata Ogu tumuli
Kwara state:-
1 Dayspring relics
2 Okuta fort
3 Yashikera fort
4 Otaro stone figure
5 Ijara stone figure
Lagos state:-
1 Iloja bar
2 Oba’s house
3 water house
4 Old secretarial
5 Elephant house
6 No 10 Eleya Street Lagos Brazilian building
Niger state:-
1 Tsoede’s tomb at Gwangade
2 Ikatanbu Palace of the Esu Mohamed at bida
3 Government house at Zongori
Ogun State
1 Sungbo Shrine {groove near Oke-Eri near Ijebu}
Ondo State:-
1 Igbaraoke petroglyha
2 The palace of Deji of Akure
Osun State:-
1 Itayemoo Ile-Ife
2 Osun Shrine Oshogbo
3 Ilajo Stone figure
4 Shrine at Ate Oja Oshogbo
Plateau State:-
1 Stone Built Causeway forof
2 Tading Causeway
3 Batura Causeway
4 Kwadon Kaya
5 First Mining Beacon
River State:-
1 King Jaja Statue Opobo
Sokoto State:-
1 the ancient ruins of Surami City
Monuments and Site in Plateau State
Stone Built causeway, Bokos. There are three of these schedule monuments in Plateau State. The three bridges are stone causeway and are believe to have been built before the arrived of the present inhabitants {Biron}. According to tradition they have been in existence for three generations. The remains of these causeways can be seeing even today.
Ladia pool, Quan-pam. This is a schedule monument in the state. According to tradition the pool remains dry during the raining season but over flooded it bank during dry season. The pool is encircled with stones where male children are given birth to. It is believed that any male child who refused to walk to these stone will disappear forever. Moreover female children are not allowed to go there.
Dungwan pool, Quan-pam. This is also a schedule monument in the state. Tradition has it that the pool over flooded it bank during dry season. Fishing is not allowed in the pool. It is believed that when a fish from the pool are drown out from the pool the fish will cut itself into pieces and will not cook even if cooked for several hours until it is taken back to the pool.
Nwun pool, Quan-pam. This particular pool usually over flood it bank during the dry season and then disappeared.
Dashit-Manga Bakin Ciyawa, Quan Pam. This one the declared monuments in the state, when the long Chief of Dashit is install, the chief will be taken there to commune with the spirit. The chief will stay there without food and water
Footprint at Chimnlardarg, Quan Pam. This foot prints of a hunter and his dog with his finger print on a rock.
Cave with Tunnel, Quan Pam. This particular cave was believed to have shield the people from the invading Army during inter tribal war.
Footprint on a Rock, Saklang-shandan. This is a horse print on a rock. The rock is believed to sacred and people are not allowed to with shoe and cloths on their body.
Leg Rings Dibbon, Lang tang. These are three ancient leg rings. The rings are so hard to removed when one tries to removed from the ancient legs.
Na-niag {bush cow shang on a rock}, Hamal-shandam. This is a stone in the shape of a bush cow. It is a place where two hunter fought a bush cow which eventually turned rock in order to escaped been killed by the hunter.
Footprint Man and Dog {Kwallak hill} Gasum. This signified the first Tarok to settle in the area.
Bwongbko shot {an old Divisional appeal Court}, Riyon. This is an old divisional court used till 1947. it was declared monument when the court was moved to Jos on the appointment of the first Chief Judge.
Ladia pool, Quan-pam. This is a schedule monument in the state. According to tradition the pool remains dry during the raining season but over flooded it bank during dry season. The pool is encircled with stones where male children are given birth to. It is believed that any male child who refused to walk to these stone will disappear forever. Moreover female children are not allowed to go there.
Dungwan pool, Quan-pam. This is also a schedule monument in the state. Tradition has it that the pool over flooded it bank during dry season. Fishing is not allowed in the pool. It is believed that when a fish from the pool are drown out from the pool the fish will cut itself into pieces and will not cook even if cooked for several hours until it is taken back to the pool.
Nwun pool, Quan-pam. This particular pool usually over flood it bank during the dry season and then disappeared.
Dashit-Manga Bakin Ciyawa, Quan Pam. This one the declared monuments in the state, when the long Chief of Dashit is install, the chief will be taken there to commune with the spirit. The chief will stay there without food and water
Footprint at Chimnlardarg, Quan Pam. This foot prints of a hunter and his dog with his finger print on a rock.
Cave with Tunnel, Quan Pam. This particular cave was believed to have shield the people from the invading Army during inter tribal war.
Footprint on a Rock, Saklang-shandan. This is a horse print on a rock. The rock is believed to sacred and people are not allowed to with shoe and cloths on their body.
Leg Rings Dibbon, Lang tang. These are three ancient leg rings. The rings are so hard to removed when one tries to removed from the ancient legs.
Na-niag {bush cow shang on a rock}, Hamal-shandam. This is a stone in the shape of a bush cow. It is a place where two hunter fought a bush cow which eventually turned rock in order to escaped been killed by the hunter.
Footprint Man and Dog {Kwallak hill} Gasum. This signified the first Tarok to settle in the area.
Bwongbko shot {an old Divisional appeal Court}, Riyon. This is an old divisional court used till 1947. it was declared monument when the court was moved to Jos on the appointment of the first Chief Judge.
Declared Monuments and site in Nigeria
1 Old Residency Calabar. The house together with its compound was declared monument on the 14th August 1959.The ground floor was used as a divisional office during the colonial era. The first floor is a rest room or house and it is furnished with furniture and fittings. It becomes visually an historic house museum.
2 Rebeh’s house. Fort Diwa, Borno State. This house and the compound thereof were declared monuments on the 13th April 1959. The house was the resident of Rebeh a general who came from Sudan and made himself a ruler of Borno Kokuwa, he established his headquarter at Diwa where a great fort was built and he remains there till the year 1900. The French troupe ousted and killed him at Guja also in Borno State.
3 Rock Painting at dutsen damisa near Gumen in Jigawa State. This was declared a site on the 23rd March 1959 together with an area within the radius of 182 meters as a result of the discovery at geshi where further groups of rock paintings were reported. The paintings are about 8 kilometers from the Geshi and consist of merely cattle figures. They were in a better state preservation than those of the Geshi. Though not of high standard artistically.
4 Obu’s house, Ohafia Abia State- Ndi Anaga meeting house. It was declared monument on the 19th March 1953. The structure is very simple with large verandah closed with earthen walls at both ends and one long longitudinal line with the other side opening towards the compound. The monumentality of the building is due to the magnificent effect of created by free rolls of richly carved post supporting the rolls and dividing the interior into three narrow aisle or passage. The pillars are carved with representation of warriors; masquerade and women carrying loads combine with geometrical or stylized botanical pattern.
5 Chief Okoroji’s house. Arochukwu Abia State. This was declared monument on the 19th March 1953. Very few Aro building survived the last century but the parts that remains represent a highly developed construction skills. They have beautiful found aisles or passages at the front of the house and the interior posse’s highly successful architectural details and decorations. Chief Okoroji who built the house was probably at the height of his prosperity in 1880 but die before the Aro expedition. The plan of the house is simply an inner room, an outer verandah and the most striking features are its height. It was built on the plinth which makes it a very tall building giving the building length of the room from front of the house. The house have an interior verandah, it has low carved timber mound benches. A pair of large chain hangs on the ceiling and rafter is ornamental with rolls of animals’ skull. The inner even has an interesting dome at most dark pitch{darkness} and clouded with fairly hair loom, while the center piece of the room is a shrine made of fine curved manila with flat ends and crown with shape bell around the wall and rolls of china plates, several dishes and cover, filla dishes and bowl. There is also a provision of plates, mugs, bicaks, and taka. The ceiling on the room is huge with variety of lantern and street light. Elsewhere in the room are canon, sword and gun. All of these are miscellaneous European article. They appear to be less than 19th century English and German trade group or souvenirs. There are also some spirant ream type brass manilas of very good specimen. There are also fluid designs of wood carving.
6 Old Teacher Training College. Katsina State. This was declared monument on the 23rd April 1959. the college becomes the most famous and influential educational institution in the Northern Nigeria. The opening of the college in 1921 mark the beginning of the real step forward in the history of education in that part of the country. The house was constructed with local materials used by local craftsmen and in traditional style. They are been used both in character and charm. There are thick wall or great wall and griseous ashes. The thick wall gives then an aura of strength as well as beauty.
7 Foot Bridge at Zungerun Kaduna State. This was declared monument on the 16th February 1956. The foot bridge is an interesting example of Engineering before the coming of railway and the development of roads in Nigeria. The steel bridge was originally erected by late lord lugard at Zungeru but was re- erected in 1954 in Kaduna garden.
8 Gidan Madaki, Bauchi State. This house and the entire compound were declared monument on the 16th March 1953. the house is situated along 45 kilometers from Bauchi-kano road. It was built in 1860 by the celebrated master builder of the century Mallam Baba Gwani of Zaria. The main hall and others built within the compound of the madaki were the handy work of baba Gwani who at about this period 1850 and 1860 was renown in hausa land for his skill in architecture. He dies at Birnin in 1862 at the hand of his patron who will tolerate no other rulers having a house of his kind. The zauri or entrance hall is a room of about 4.5 meters by 8.5 meters and has a roof supported by massive square colors. 9 bys are found there and the roof is constructed with Azara and mound. The baba zauri{main hall} present no less advantage than the site in the ancient tradition and unspoken architectural character, they are among the most appreciated building with sled type doom rooms and very interesting form of classical aisle and ashes. The main hall is filled with and furnished with leather cover door. On the eastern part of the main hall is an ate {room before another part of} and it roof is supported by 1.4 meters beams. The walls surrounding the halls varied in sizes and it is not regular in shape. The southern perimeter walls are approximately 1.3 meters in width by 4.5 meters in height by 6 meters high. Oppositte to this is the Mosque whose interior construction is similar to gida makama of kano state.
9 Petroglyes of Igbaraoke. Near Akure Ondo State. This was declared site on the 19 February 1963. In 1959 during the leveling of a site for a new house in igbaraoke, some 27 kilometers on Akure-Ilesa road in Ondo State, a large rock with engrave design was uncovered. Nothing was known of the significant or the age but it includes what appears to be like a fish as well as a narrow triangular pattern. The rock is opposite the csc school and about 9 meters south west of the main road. It has be fenced and identified as a site.
10 Maigimin at Mushishi Niger State. This was declared monument on the 13th February 1962. this house with the surround land is within 30 meters on either side from the crest of maijimia house. It was declared on the native authority {NA}. it was a house occurred by the first three British army officers to be stationed at mushishi during the initial campaign against Abubarka Esunupe and Abraham the Emir of Katagura in the very period of the last century. The three officers were known as Maijima, Maihakurikai, and maigimima.
11 Sungbo Shrine Ijebu Ode Ogun State. This was declared a site on the 15th December 1964. Sungbo shrine lays in the land of Oke-eri {a quarter in Oke-eri from which the chief priest of the shrine most be choosen. No woman is allowed to approach this shrine for fear of death. The groove is popularly said to a miraculous place. There is a huge cob webs and the grasses there never grow. It is situated in a groove a few yards erede east of the arena which is slept bare of leaves with no other shrine or monuments to mark it suppose site of sungbo burial place. Annual sacrifices are usually made here to Sungbo. Erede is a great earth surrounding the town of Ijebu Ode. History has if that queen sheba pass through here on her way to the southern part of Africa.
12 Iloja Bar at No 6 Ali Street and no 2 Bamgbose street Lagos state. This was declared monument on the 6th April 1966. it is located at the corner of these two street . The building owned by Mr. Olaiya has probably the greatest architectural interest of all building in Lagos. It is in a moderate state of repair but will require a huge amount of money for future maintenance. It was built about 150 years ago and one of the most modern style building built by Nigerian shortly after Lagos became a colony by frees slave family returning from Brazil. It is one of the most striking of the Brazilian style of building with attracting arch doorway and windows, fine iron baluster and statue. The Brazilian style of architecture has influence much of Yoruba land buildings.
13 Habe Mosque at Bebeji, Kano State. This was declared monument on 15th December 1954. The mosque was said to have been built in 1770 in three stages. The northern part was rebuilt 27 years age when the mosque was in great ruins. The mosque is located on the old Kano- Zaria road. the latest report has it that no trace of the ancient mosque remains today as it has been completely pull down and rebuilt in modern style of technology.
14 Tower of Surami, Sokoto State. This was declared monument on the 15th August 1964. it was declared a monument despite the fact that it has been abandon for 300 years. The tower wall still stand between 4.5 meters to 6 meters and the declaration include the line of the main road of the area in line within a distance of 91 meters from the crest of the wall. Mohamed Kaita Saiki of Kabbi whose empire is said to have included Yauri, nupe, Goba, Kano, Katsina, Zaria, and Aggade found Surami in the early 16th century. The town existed for 84 years 4 months and 20 days before it was finally abandon in the 18th century when the capital was move to Birnin Kabbi. As it is within front region, it was been protected from the ravages of Agriculture while trance of house walls and hut foundation are still visible. An ancient baoba tree mark the site of kaita house’s and walls to which the magic of properties where attributed 5 kilometers south of surami is the town of gogu also found by kaita. The place is now the site of model village and the whole area has been cultivated for a considerable period so nothing remains of the defensive walls.
Kaita found a number of settlement ay that period and according to records there are walls of 16 kilometers circumference built of stone with the internal filled with late rite or red mud which is evidence that it was brought from a far distance. It is said that persons condemn to death were throw down form this wall probably with ropes around their neck. The surami wall may be the hand work of the same people who built the famous wall of lobi in the French territory.
15 Benin City Walls and Moats, Edo State. This was declared monument on the 1st of June 1961. the declaration as a monument include the site lines within 15 meters on the crest of the walls from the inside and within 30 meters of the crest of the wall from the outside provided at all existing building sited within 15 meters of the crest of walls on the outside shall be deem to be lawfully erected as long as they exist. These are the most impressive city walls from the southern part of Nigeria. At the highest point the wall measured 9 meters high with a surrounding ditches of moats measuring another 9 meters deep giving a total in climb of 18 meters. Unfortunately in the past few years the walls have been extensively demolished and level and used by the public for building purpose.
16 King Jaja Statue, River State. This was declared monument on the 14th of August 1959. It was declared a monument together with the surrounding land within the radius of 30 meters from the statue. King Douglas Jaja was one of the fourth kings from Opbobo section of Vonmimi River State who founded the Opobo town in 1870. He later became the king of opobo town, a position he held until his death in 1887. He was exit to the western India but having spent some years, he was pardon but die on his way home at Temmeriffe on 7th July 1891. He was buried in opobo. The statue was made in England and erected in 1907. The expenses were borne by Chief of opobo and some jaja Europeans friends.
17 Ita Yemoo Ile Ife, Osun State.this was declared monument on the 20th February 1959.ita yemoo is situated on the easthern side of ife-ilesa road on the ilesa end of the town. A stripe of land measuring 480meters by 120 meters following ilesha- ife road from beacon 215c in the southern direction to the point were the inner wall met the ife-ilesha road. In 1987 during the foundation excavation of a new house, some outstanding fine example of ife bronze work were discovered. Fortunately, the then Director of Antiquities Mr. Bernard Fagg happen to be in ile- ife at that time and took immediate step to protect the finds and the site. The department carried out excavation work of the area and the site was found to contain a lot of terracotta’s and pottery. The whole areas later turn out to be an important archaeological site. One piece of pavement was also uncovered and a roof built over it.
18 Carved Stone Figure in Igbajo Osun State. This was declared a site on the 5th of October 1964. it is 60cm high mounted onj a based embedded in the ground and dedicated to esu. It stands on the road side in the center of the town. It is still in good condition excerpt for a deep cut on the left elbow which was said to inflict during one of inter- tribal Wars with ilesha about the middle of the last century. According to Owa of Igbajo, there were two other stone carving, one of which was stolen some 30 years ago, while the other was badly mutilated by fanatical Christian recently.
19 Stone built causeway at Bokos Plateau State. This was declared monument on the 16th February 1956 together with an area of land including the stream within the radius of 91 meters. It also comprises of intricately and painstakingly arranged stone to form bridge over the stream.
20 Stone built causeway at Butura also at Bokos plateau state. This was declared monument on the 16th February 1982. It was declared a monument with an area of land including the stream within the radius of the center of the causeway. It also comprises of intricately and painstakingly arranged stone to form the bridge across the stream. The origin of the stone structure is unknown but evidence suggests that they were there before the Riyon tribes arrived in Bokos in a date considered to be between 150 and 200 years. The present inhabitants of Bokos were capable of maintaining the causeway and putting it in good condition since their ancestors came into the plateau. The remains of some 30 bridge or causeways could still be see as at 1956 including a high level at Bokos 80 kilometers from Jos.
21 Carved Stone Monolith, Alok Cross River State. This was declared a site on the 19th March 1963. These and numerous circle of an interesting carved stone in cross river, two of which are situated on Ogoja-Ikom highway near the village of Alok and Emaghabe. Emaghabe is 178 kilometers while Alok is 179 kilometers. Little is known about the history and significance of these carved stone but they are still reverence and reserved by the local people. The quality of workmanship and reality of such an art form in this region given the stone a significant value although there bare considerable variation in details. These entire monoliths are alike in that they represent dreaded human figures. They appear to have little significance for the present inhabitants who believe that these stone must be graves of the Ntuls ie the priest of the alam people. Presently the stone are no longer carved.
22 Nanna of Itsekiri Palace Koko, Delta State. The house was declared a monument in 1966. It comprises of a big county with rooms arranged round it. Two of these rooms today occupied an exhibition of the various treasures belonging to the exit chief Nanna, who was dethrone by the British at the beginning of the 18th century. The building earth of koko people is the loose type that is made to be stabilized with grey clay common in these areas. The construction generally as well as the wall finishing as could be seen on the palace wall though in the later chalk finish was also introduced. In recent years the building has suffers so much deterioration as well as bastardization by quark restorers.
23 Chief Enogie’s house Obasagbo, Edo State. This building and its entire compound was declared monument on the 4th June 1961. The house is composed of a courtyard which is all that survived of the original building which is probably built in the second half of the 19th century. The courtyard is believed to be the materials of unplanned structure since it was first built. There are many features in the building which indicate direct names of the architecture of Benin. This includes horizontally fluided wall, central inpluvium and carved decoration on timber walls. There are two important features which are not known in Benin. These are symmetry of the plain having the main entrance door and main altar on the longitudinal axis and on the east with very heavy earth pillars measuring 75cm in plain and 240cm high.
2 Rebeh’s house. Fort Diwa, Borno State. This house and the compound thereof were declared monuments on the 13th April 1959. The house was the resident of Rebeh a general who came from Sudan and made himself a ruler of Borno Kokuwa, he established his headquarter at Diwa where a great fort was built and he remains there till the year 1900. The French troupe ousted and killed him at Guja also in Borno State.
3 Rock Painting at dutsen damisa near Gumen in Jigawa State. This was declared a site on the 23rd March 1959 together with an area within the radius of 182 meters as a result of the discovery at geshi where further groups of rock paintings were reported. The paintings are about 8 kilometers from the Geshi and consist of merely cattle figures. They were in a better state preservation than those of the Geshi. Though not of high standard artistically.
4 Obu’s house, Ohafia Abia State- Ndi Anaga meeting house. It was declared monument on the 19th March 1953. The structure is very simple with large verandah closed with earthen walls at both ends and one long longitudinal line with the other side opening towards the compound. The monumentality of the building is due to the magnificent effect of created by free rolls of richly carved post supporting the rolls and dividing the interior into three narrow aisle or passage. The pillars are carved with representation of warriors; masquerade and women carrying loads combine with geometrical or stylized botanical pattern.
5 Chief Okoroji’s house. Arochukwu Abia State. This was declared monument on the 19th March 1953. Very few Aro building survived the last century but the parts that remains represent a highly developed construction skills. They have beautiful found aisles or passages at the front of the house and the interior posse’s highly successful architectural details and decorations. Chief Okoroji who built the house was probably at the height of his prosperity in 1880 but die before the Aro expedition. The plan of the house is simply an inner room, an outer verandah and the most striking features are its height. It was built on the plinth which makes it a very tall building giving the building length of the room from front of the house. The house have an interior verandah, it has low carved timber mound benches. A pair of large chain hangs on the ceiling and rafter is ornamental with rolls of animals’ skull. The inner even has an interesting dome at most dark pitch{darkness} and clouded with fairly hair loom, while the center piece of the room is a shrine made of fine curved manila with flat ends and crown with shape bell around the wall and rolls of china plates, several dishes and cover, filla dishes and bowl. There is also a provision of plates, mugs, bicaks, and taka. The ceiling on the room is huge with variety of lantern and street light. Elsewhere in the room are canon, sword and gun. All of these are miscellaneous European article. They appear to be less than 19th century English and German trade group or souvenirs. There are also some spirant ream type brass manilas of very good specimen. There are also fluid designs of wood carving.
6 Old Teacher Training College. Katsina State. This was declared monument on the 23rd April 1959. the college becomes the most famous and influential educational institution in the Northern Nigeria. The opening of the college in 1921 mark the beginning of the real step forward in the history of education in that part of the country. The house was constructed with local materials used by local craftsmen and in traditional style. They are been used both in character and charm. There are thick wall or great wall and griseous ashes. The thick wall gives then an aura of strength as well as beauty.
7 Foot Bridge at Zungerun Kaduna State. This was declared monument on the 16th February 1956. The foot bridge is an interesting example of Engineering before the coming of railway and the development of roads in Nigeria. The steel bridge was originally erected by late lord lugard at Zungeru but was re- erected in 1954 in Kaduna garden.
8 Gidan Madaki, Bauchi State. This house and the entire compound were declared monument on the 16th March 1953. the house is situated along 45 kilometers from Bauchi-kano road. It was built in 1860 by the celebrated master builder of the century Mallam Baba Gwani of Zaria. The main hall and others built within the compound of the madaki were the handy work of baba Gwani who at about this period 1850 and 1860 was renown in hausa land for his skill in architecture. He dies at Birnin in 1862 at the hand of his patron who will tolerate no other rulers having a house of his kind. The zauri or entrance hall is a room of about 4.5 meters by 8.5 meters and has a roof supported by massive square colors. 9 bys are found there and the roof is constructed with Azara and mound. The baba zauri{main hall} present no less advantage than the site in the ancient tradition and unspoken architectural character, they are among the most appreciated building with sled type doom rooms and very interesting form of classical aisle and ashes. The main hall is filled with and furnished with leather cover door. On the eastern part of the main hall is an ate {room before another part of} and it roof is supported by 1.4 meters beams. The walls surrounding the halls varied in sizes and it is not regular in shape. The southern perimeter walls are approximately 1.3 meters in width by 4.5 meters in height by 6 meters high. Oppositte to this is the Mosque whose interior construction is similar to gida makama of kano state.
9 Petroglyes of Igbaraoke. Near Akure Ondo State. This was declared site on the 19 February 1963. In 1959 during the leveling of a site for a new house in igbaraoke, some 27 kilometers on Akure-Ilesa road in Ondo State, a large rock with engrave design was uncovered. Nothing was known of the significant or the age but it includes what appears to be like a fish as well as a narrow triangular pattern. The rock is opposite the csc school and about 9 meters south west of the main road. It has be fenced and identified as a site.
10 Maigimin at Mushishi Niger State. This was declared monument on the 13th February 1962. this house with the surround land is within 30 meters on either side from the crest of maijimia house. It was declared on the native authority {NA}. it was a house occurred by the first three British army officers to be stationed at mushishi during the initial campaign against Abubarka Esunupe and Abraham the Emir of Katagura in the very period of the last century. The three officers were known as Maijima, Maihakurikai, and maigimima.
11 Sungbo Shrine Ijebu Ode Ogun State. This was declared a site on the 15th December 1964. Sungbo shrine lays in the land of Oke-eri {a quarter in Oke-eri from which the chief priest of the shrine most be choosen. No woman is allowed to approach this shrine for fear of death. The groove is popularly said to a miraculous place. There is a huge cob webs and the grasses there never grow. It is situated in a groove a few yards erede east of the arena which is slept bare of leaves with no other shrine or monuments to mark it suppose site of sungbo burial place. Annual sacrifices are usually made here to Sungbo. Erede is a great earth surrounding the town of Ijebu Ode. History has if that queen sheba pass through here on her way to the southern part of Africa.
12 Iloja Bar at No 6 Ali Street and no 2 Bamgbose street Lagos state. This was declared monument on the 6th April 1966. it is located at the corner of these two street . The building owned by Mr. Olaiya has probably the greatest architectural interest of all building in Lagos. It is in a moderate state of repair but will require a huge amount of money for future maintenance. It was built about 150 years ago and one of the most modern style building built by Nigerian shortly after Lagos became a colony by frees slave family returning from Brazil. It is one of the most striking of the Brazilian style of building with attracting arch doorway and windows, fine iron baluster and statue. The Brazilian style of architecture has influence much of Yoruba land buildings.
13 Habe Mosque at Bebeji, Kano State. This was declared monument on 15th December 1954. The mosque was said to have been built in 1770 in three stages. The northern part was rebuilt 27 years age when the mosque was in great ruins. The mosque is located on the old Kano- Zaria road. the latest report has it that no trace of the ancient mosque remains today as it has been completely pull down and rebuilt in modern style of technology.
14 Tower of Surami, Sokoto State. This was declared monument on the 15th August 1964. it was declared a monument despite the fact that it has been abandon for 300 years. The tower wall still stand between 4.5 meters to 6 meters and the declaration include the line of the main road of the area in line within a distance of 91 meters from the crest of the wall. Mohamed Kaita Saiki of Kabbi whose empire is said to have included Yauri, nupe, Goba, Kano, Katsina, Zaria, and Aggade found Surami in the early 16th century. The town existed for 84 years 4 months and 20 days before it was finally abandon in the 18th century when the capital was move to Birnin Kabbi. As it is within front region, it was been protected from the ravages of Agriculture while trance of house walls and hut foundation are still visible. An ancient baoba tree mark the site of kaita house’s and walls to which the magic of properties where attributed 5 kilometers south of surami is the town of gogu also found by kaita. The place is now the site of model village and the whole area has been cultivated for a considerable period so nothing remains of the defensive walls.
Kaita found a number of settlement ay that period and according to records there are walls of 16 kilometers circumference built of stone with the internal filled with late rite or red mud which is evidence that it was brought from a far distance. It is said that persons condemn to death were throw down form this wall probably with ropes around their neck. The surami wall may be the hand work of the same people who built the famous wall of lobi in the French territory.
15 Benin City Walls and Moats, Edo State. This was declared monument on the 1st of June 1961. the declaration as a monument include the site lines within 15 meters on the crest of the walls from the inside and within 30 meters of the crest of the wall from the outside provided at all existing building sited within 15 meters of the crest of walls on the outside shall be deem to be lawfully erected as long as they exist. These are the most impressive city walls from the southern part of Nigeria. At the highest point the wall measured 9 meters high with a surrounding ditches of moats measuring another 9 meters deep giving a total in climb of 18 meters. Unfortunately in the past few years the walls have been extensively demolished and level and used by the public for building purpose.
16 King Jaja Statue, River State. This was declared monument on the 14th of August 1959. It was declared a monument together with the surrounding land within the radius of 30 meters from the statue. King Douglas Jaja was one of the fourth kings from Opbobo section of Vonmimi River State who founded the Opobo town in 1870. He later became the king of opobo town, a position he held until his death in 1887. He was exit to the western India but having spent some years, he was pardon but die on his way home at Temmeriffe on 7th July 1891. He was buried in opobo. The statue was made in England and erected in 1907. The expenses were borne by Chief of opobo and some jaja Europeans friends.
17 Ita Yemoo Ile Ife, Osun State.this was declared monument on the 20th February 1959.ita yemoo is situated on the easthern side of ife-ilesa road on the ilesa end of the town. A stripe of land measuring 480meters by 120 meters following ilesha- ife road from beacon 215c in the southern direction to the point were the inner wall met the ife-ilesha road. In 1987 during the foundation excavation of a new house, some outstanding fine example of ife bronze work were discovered. Fortunately, the then Director of Antiquities Mr. Bernard Fagg happen to be in ile- ife at that time and took immediate step to protect the finds and the site. The department carried out excavation work of the area and the site was found to contain a lot of terracotta’s and pottery. The whole areas later turn out to be an important archaeological site. One piece of pavement was also uncovered and a roof built over it.
18 Carved Stone Figure in Igbajo Osun State. This was declared a site on the 5th of October 1964. it is 60cm high mounted onj a based embedded in the ground and dedicated to esu. It stands on the road side in the center of the town. It is still in good condition excerpt for a deep cut on the left elbow which was said to inflict during one of inter- tribal Wars with ilesha about the middle of the last century. According to Owa of Igbajo, there were two other stone carving, one of which was stolen some 30 years ago, while the other was badly mutilated by fanatical Christian recently.
19 Stone built causeway at Bokos Plateau State. This was declared monument on the 16th February 1956 together with an area of land including the stream within the radius of 91 meters. It also comprises of intricately and painstakingly arranged stone to form bridge over the stream.
20 Stone built causeway at Butura also at Bokos plateau state. This was declared monument on the 16th February 1982. It was declared a monument with an area of land including the stream within the radius of the center of the causeway. It also comprises of intricately and painstakingly arranged stone to form the bridge across the stream. The origin of the stone structure is unknown but evidence suggests that they were there before the Riyon tribes arrived in Bokos in a date considered to be between 150 and 200 years. The present inhabitants of Bokos were capable of maintaining the causeway and putting it in good condition since their ancestors came into the plateau. The remains of some 30 bridge or causeways could still be see as at 1956 including a high level at Bokos 80 kilometers from Jos.
21 Carved Stone Monolith, Alok Cross River State. This was declared a site on the 19th March 1963. These and numerous circle of an interesting carved stone in cross river, two of which are situated on Ogoja-Ikom highway near the village of Alok and Emaghabe. Emaghabe is 178 kilometers while Alok is 179 kilometers. Little is known about the history and significance of these carved stone but they are still reverence and reserved by the local people. The quality of workmanship and reality of such an art form in this region given the stone a significant value although there bare considerable variation in details. These entire monoliths are alike in that they represent dreaded human figures. They appear to have little significance for the present inhabitants who believe that these stone must be graves of the Ntuls ie the priest of the alam people. Presently the stone are no longer carved.
22 Nanna of Itsekiri Palace Koko, Delta State. The house was declared a monument in 1966. It comprises of a big county with rooms arranged round it. Two of these rooms today occupied an exhibition of the various treasures belonging to the exit chief Nanna, who was dethrone by the British at the beginning of the 18th century. The building earth of koko people is the loose type that is made to be stabilized with grey clay common in these areas. The construction generally as well as the wall finishing as could be seen on the palace wall though in the later chalk finish was also introduced. In recent years the building has suffers so much deterioration as well as bastardization by quark restorers.
23 Chief Enogie’s house Obasagbo, Edo State. This building and its entire compound was declared monument on the 4th June 1961. The house is composed of a courtyard which is all that survived of the original building which is probably built in the second half of the 19th century. The courtyard is believed to be the materials of unplanned structure since it was first built. There are many features in the building which indicate direct names of the architecture of Benin. This includes horizontally fluided wall, central inpluvium and carved decoration on timber walls. There are two important features which are not known in Benin. These are symmetry of the plain having the main entrance door and main altar on the longitudinal axis and on the east with very heavy earth pillars measuring 75cm in plain and 240cm high.
Wednesday, April 15, 2009
CULTURAL HISTORY BEHIND THE NIGERIA ART WORK
Nigeria is one of the Africa States which acquires her independence in 1960. But the people and their indigenous culture have ancient foundation. Nigeria with Land mass of 925,000 sq km has a popular place above 140 millions persons. It has about 350 indigenous language commodities and several thousands of dialect communities. In spite of this diversity of habitat and language, cultural and political formations, these political and language communities represent specific geo-cultural civilization. With a land area of 22-27% of the total Africa population, which means that one out of four Africans is a Nigerian and at the world Negroid population every fifth or sixth black man is a Nigerian. The history of the black Diaspora from medieval times to present is thus part of the Nigerian story. The African dimensions of this Nigeria story is heavily documented within west and central Sudan, Northern African, the valley (Egypt and Sudan) while overseas dimensions is strongest in Brazil and middle America, the Caribbean and North America. It is however pertinent to know that cultural linguists have proved that the 350 or so languages of Nigeria region belong generally to 3 out of 4 language families indigenous of African. These 3 families area are:-(1) The Niger – Kordofanian or Niger – Congo family which include language spoken from sense – Gambia in the West through western Africans, central and eastern African to South African. This including all the Bantoid language from the Cameroon regional the republic of South Africa. The cradle of Bantoid and the entire Niger – Congo or at least its Benue – Congo Branch is in the Nigeria area Igbo (Ibo), Igala, Gwayi, Edo ate are part of this language family.
(2) Afro – Asiatic, (Semitic or Erytheaic) family which incidentally include the ancient Egyptian, Berber, Cushitic, Hausa, Kotoko, Angas etc, are members and of course shuwa Arabic which later came into Nigerian region within oral/written historic rather than prehistoric times.
(3) The Nilo Sahara family which being confirmed to the Nilo Sahara – Sahalian fringe could have been generically related to Niger – Congo in what would be a Kongo – Sahara super – family. Kanuri, kanembu and Songhai are the Nigeria member of this family.
(4) The fourth family the Khosian which is confirmed to southern Africa (Tanzania and South Africa – Namibia) is not represented in Nigeria. But the 3 families represent a time depth of 10,000 – 15,000 years of continuous growth and internal diversification.
It is now obvious that the indigenous and pre-mechanical culture group and language communities of the Nigerian are a product of the major dynamics that affected most continental Africa and South – West Asia. One important significance and their ten to thirteen indigenous Nigeria communities and their close affiliates – Edo, Fulani, Gwari, Hausa, Idoma, Igala – Yoruba, Ibibio, Igbo, Kamberi, Jukun, Nupe, Kanuri – Kamembu, Tiv, are enumerated in the millions or multiples of millions rather than in thousands or multiples of thousands. The sculptural traditions of the people are therefore traditions of peoples, densities of populations rooted in great antiquity.
The classical cultures of Nigerians today are celebrated in many forms. One dimension of these developments is the Phenomenon of Urbanization whereby veritable towns and cities, many of them with city walls and elaborate fortification have survived. Such celebrated centers are Birnin, Gazargamo, Birnin Kebbi, Kano, Ile-Ife, Benin, Katsina, Old Oyo, Bida, Sokoto, and Ibadan which was the largest urban centre in black Africa. These urban centers were also the centers of states, kingdoms and Empires. These ranged from city- states of the coast such as Nembe, Bonny, Opobo, etc., imperial centers such as Idah, Kwararafa, Old Oyo, Sokoto and its numerous emirate capitals. But great numbers of these Nigerians communities did not developed dominant urban centers; instead, they operated as commonwealth under unwritten religious, oracular, dynastic, gerotocratic, economics etc. Constitutions. Unlike the mega states, these mini-states did not enter into the great epics-but they were able to demonstrate a resilience and timeless-ness in that their individual identities have been preserved intact whether in Igbo land, Idomaland, the Jos Plateau region, or among the Ibibio, Ijaw, Urhobo, Northern Edo and others.
One important lesson learnt from all the cultures, political and language communities of Nigeria is that artistic creativity in the various media – clay, iron, bronze, brass, wood, straws, textile, leather, stone, bone, ivory, calabash, shell, even glass was never a monopoly of any one of the 350 or so language communities i.e. The pre – mechanical technology available to both the mega and mini states was basically the same – even in such strategic areas as metallurgy, cavalry, weaponry, herbalogy, Architecture, textile, water – craft etc.
It is very clear from the above that the cultural heritage of the people fall into many parts as may be documented for many society of age.
Although a lot have been made about the neglect of most Africa societies of the wheel, the Plough, and even writing. It must also be admitted that these societies was able to function and even achieve excellence without them. One example is the unique complex earth ware in the forms of walls and ditches. The Iya or Iyala of the Benin sub-region of Nigeria.
It is the remains of the largest and most massive earth constructions yet known from the pre mechanical era. It is four to five times longer than the Great Wall of China and with over a hundred times as much materials moved as the great Pyramid and Cheop, these earthworks cover about 6500sq.km (2500sq.miles) of rain forest with a complicated network of enclosures. Their estimated total length is in excess of 16,000km (10,000miles) and with an average ditch bottom to bank cross section of 2.25sq.metres. Their total volume is very probably in excess of 37,000,000 cu.m involving over 150million man – hour of work.
The Nigeria region has been inhabited from early time by Stone Age. (Overlapping with the Paleolithic) population. The Nigerians evidence for early man has not been as clears, diverse and as ancient as in the case in Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, South Africa etc. The story of man’s culture in Nigeria becomes much clearer of Europe (Asia). From Iwo Eleru, near Akure in Ondo State and just to the North of Benin comes the earliest direct evidence for the presence of Negroid populations in Nigeria. This is dated to 11,300 BC. The lithic industry of these early collectors of the Nigerian forest belongs to the microlithic tradition, pottery (terracotta) was also well known to the makers of the microlithic tools and the later Neolithic populations who were already practicing Agriculture before 3000BC. From Iwo Eleru evidence and the discoveries elsewhere in the West Africa forest and Savannah and from the Sahara in the North, It is observed that modern West Africa populations have been in these homelands throughout the Holocene period. Based on Archaeological evidence and linguistics students statistical analyses. The parent or protolanguage from which West Africa languages are descended have a time of some 10,000 years or even more.
Esie Soapstone
Esie Soapstone is a culture that flourished in Kwara state North of Ile –Ife. In Esie there are over one thousand soapstone figures – representing human being, ancestors – beaded, bearded, seated and wearing a great variety of head – dresses and hair – styles. Today, they have become a centre of local religious reverence and worship which is climaxed by an annual festival which takes place in April of the Christian calendar.
During this period, sacrifices are made; prayers are offered at the original temple.
These stone images form the subject of various local myths – one of which asserts that they were humans turned to stone by divine punishment.
It is however explained scientifically that they were made of stone locally quarried and carved. They represent a civilization which had declined before the present political cultures were formed in the area. It is however believed that, these stone images are well above 200 years of age.
During this period, sacrifices are made; prayers are offered at the original temple.
These stone images form the subject of various local myths – one of which asserts that they were humans turned to stone by divine punishment.
It is however explained scientifically that they were made of stone locally quarried and carved. They represent a civilization which had declined before the present political cultures were formed in the area. It is however believed that, these stone images are well above 200 years of age.
Esie Soapstone
Esie Soapstone is a culture that flourished in Kwara state North of Ile –Ife. In Esie there are over one thousand soapstone figures – representing human being, ancestors – beaded, bearded, seated and wearing a great variety of head – dresses and hair – styles. Today, they have become a centre of local religious reverence and worship which is climaxed by an annual festival which takes place in April of the Christian calendar.
During this period, sacrifices are made; prayers are offered at the original temple.
These stone images form the subject of various local myths – one of which asserts that they were humans turned to stone by divine punishment.
It is however explained scientifically that they were made of stone locally quarried and carved. They represent a civilization which had declined before the present political cultures were formed in the area. It is however believed that, these stone images are well above 200 years of age.
During this period, sacrifices are made; prayers are offered at the original temple.
These stone images form the subject of various local myths – one of which asserts that they were humans turned to stone by divine punishment.
It is however explained scientifically that they were made of stone locally quarried and carved. They represent a civilization which had declined before the present political cultures were formed in the area. It is however believed that, these stone images are well above 200 years of age.
ILE – IFE CULTURE
Ile- Ife, the cradle of the Yoruba race is located in the present day Osun State. The uniqueness of Ile-Ife or simply Ife in Africa history manifested itself at many important levels in the cosmology of the universe, the centre at which the first man was created or molded in clay and given the breath of life. In spiritual terms Ife had been and remains a holy city, home of Divinities (Orisa) of which the king the Oni is the living embodiment. At the political level, the culture of the region Ile-Ife was the source, the centre from which the kings of the numerous kingdom and empires including Oyo, Benin, Ketu etc were sent to rule. Ife remains the source of the legitimacy of these and other rulers.
From the point of view of the cultural history of Africa, Ile-Ife was an early centre of urban tradition. The dynasty of Oduduwa and other predynastic system before it centered on the Obatala, Orisa Nla are within a time span of one thousand years or more.
The art of Ife combines terracotta, bronze and stone sculptures; these are done in life sizes or naturalistic styles.
The Ife terracuttas represents kings, Queens and commoners (even criminal and victims of human sacrifices) all these are date to between 900AD and 1400AD. As in Nok terracottas which depict animals (rams, elephants, hippos), articulation of beauty through body and facial markings, dress for the body and depiction of kingly crowns bracelets and emblems of royal and cultural authority.
Ife goes beyond its terracotta’s medium the copper, brass/bronze tradition of metal casting by the lost – wax or cire-perdue method has received extensive publicity.
Also prominent among Ife corpus is the stone sculptures. These include obelisks, representations of humans and fish, stools and enigmatic of cult objects, the Ife stone sculpture has northern dimensions especially in the little studied collections from Esure, some 100km. south of north-east of Ile-Ife sculpture have very important extensions in relation to arts of Benin and Owo.
From the point of view of the cultural history of Africa, Ile-Ife was an early centre of urban tradition. The dynasty of Oduduwa and other predynastic system before it centered on the Obatala, Orisa Nla are within a time span of one thousand years or more.
The art of Ife combines terracotta, bronze and stone sculptures; these are done in life sizes or naturalistic styles.
The Ife terracuttas represents kings, Queens and commoners (even criminal and victims of human sacrifices) all these are date to between 900AD and 1400AD. As in Nok terracottas which depict animals (rams, elephants, hippos), articulation of beauty through body and facial markings, dress for the body and depiction of kingly crowns bracelets and emblems of royal and cultural authority.
Ife goes beyond its terracotta’s medium the copper, brass/bronze tradition of metal casting by the lost – wax or cire-perdue method has received extensive publicity.
Also prominent among Ife corpus is the stone sculptures. These include obelisks, representations of humans and fish, stools and enigmatic of cult objects, the Ife stone sculpture has northern dimensions especially in the little studied collections from Esure, some 100km. south of north-east of Ile-Ife sculpture have very important extensions in relation to arts of Benin and Owo.
NOK CULTURE
Nok culture is a prehistorically culture which flourished in the central Nigerian area – a territory extending from the middle of the Jos Plateau western through Abuja to Kagara and southwards to Katsina Nla South of it Benue many discoveries where also made at Ankiring, Wamba, Tare and Jema. The area in which these discoveries have so far been found has already spread to an area of 300 miles by 100 miles lying across the Niger and Benue valley of the ham Jaba culture group at which many of the terracuttas have been discovered. The area has also yielded not only terracuttas and evidence of early iron working but also stone tools of the achulian tradition. These terracottas were initially discovered by European Tin – miners within and around the Tin miming Zone in 1928 from alluvial deposits at a depth of 7n or more. These discoveries help to add a new dimension to Nigeria, African and indeed the world cultural heritage. The Nok people appears likely to have enjoyed an economy and way of life nearly as advance as that of the present inhabitant although at first, it was not clear whether the Nok Terracuttas belong to the Neolithic age or Iron Age. Things become clearer after systematic excavation were carried out at data-able sites such as Nok and Turaga site at which the close and clear terracottas and iron working were demonstrated.Data from direct Archaeological excavation and move recently from thermohuminiscence have generally been accepted to place the beginning of the Nok culture to at least the fifth 5th millennium (BC) to the 9th millennium BC. For a long time an upper limit data of 200 AD was the only one available. Recently T.L Dates are now available at some Nok Terracuttas which show that, they were still being produced after 600AD. Thus, the Nok Terracuttas were produced over a period of 1100 years (500BC – 600AD) and as long as 1500 years (300BC – 700AD)
One unique feature of the Terracuttas work is that they represent the earliest coherent and articulate tradition of sculpture of a naturalistic system in Black Africa. They help to provide the baseline on which to study subsequent artistic traditions, schools and movements in this region of Africa.
From the foregoing, it is obvious that the great school of Ile-Ife, Benin, Owo, Igbo – ukwu and indeed the prodigious output in wood, stone, ivory, metal and clay of the indigenous civilization of Nigeria can be seen to have an indigenous and ancestry, the Nok Terracuttas being a legitimate and credible prototype.
These Terracuttas have help to add a vital dimension to the study of the history of technology and Africa beliefs systems as they present evidence of an awareness of the landscape and its contents including animals such as elephant, the snake, the monkey and possibly cattle. They depict evidence of technology of production by showing working tools such as the axe or hoe. Elements of basic aesthetics as in bracelets, anklets, and possibly ear and lip – plugs that indicate a society of cultured citizens, a society that was not self – sufficient but produced the surplus that made the pursuit of artistic creativity possible. And the presentation of man is the central subject of its concern as most of their creativity is in human form.The culture also allows us to have a glimpse at instance of disease and bodily deformities as they allow us to see the meticulous attention paid to hair – styles of which some have survived into the twenty century.
Thursday, April 2, 2009
Nigerian culture
Bronzes, which have been dated to about the 9th century ad , were
discovered in the 1930s and ’40s at Igbo Ukwu, near the southwestern
city of Onitsha. (See also African art.) They reveal not only a high
artistic tradition but also a well-structured society with wide-ranging
economic relationships. Of particular interest is the source of the
copper and lead used to make the bronzes, which may have been Tadmekka
in the Sahara, and of the coloured glass beads, some of which may have
come from Venice and India, the latter via trade routes through Egypt,
the Nile valley, and the Chad basin. It is believed that the bronzes
were part of the furniture in the burial chamber of a high personage,
possibly a forerunner of the eze nri, a priest-king, who held religious
but not political power over large parts of the Igbo-inhabited region
well into the 20th century.
History » Kingdoms and empires of precolonial Nigeria
discovered in the 1930s and ’40s at Igbo Ukwu, near the southwestern
city of Onitsha. (See also African art.) They reveal not only a high
artistic tradition but also a well-structured society with wide-ranging
economic relationships. Of particular interest is the source of the
copper and lead used to make the bronzes, which may have been Tadmekka
in the Sahara, and of the coloured glass beads, some of which may have
come from Venice and India, the latter via trade routes through Egypt,
the Nile valley, and the Chad basin. It is believed that the bronzes
were part of the furniture in the burial chamber of a high personage,
possibly a forerunner of the eze nri, a priest-king, who held religious
but not political power over large parts of the Igbo-inhabited region
well into the 20th century.
History » Kingdoms and empires of precolonial Nigeria
Early Nigerian culture
The Nok culture
Evidence of human occupation in Nigeria dates back thousands of years.
The oldest fossil remains found by archaeologists in the southwestern
area of Iwo Eleru, near Akure, have been dated to about 9000 bc. There
are isolated collections of ancient tools and artifacts of different
periods of the Stone Age, but the oldest recognizable evidence of an
organized society belongs to the Nok culture (c. 500 bc–c. ad 200).
Pottery head found at Nok, Nigeria. In the Jos Museum, Nigeria. Height
21 cm. [Credits : Frank Willett]Named for the village of Nok, site of
some of the finds, the ancient culture produced fine terra-cotta
figurines, which were accidentally discovered by tin miners on the Jos
Plateau in the 1930s. Initially Neolithic (New Stone Age), the Nok
culture made the transition to the Iron Age. Its people raised crops
and cattle and seem to have paid particular attention to personal
adornment, especially of the hair. Distinctive features of Nok art
include naturalism, stylized treatment of the mouth and eyes, relative
proportions of the human head, body, and feet, distortions of the human
facial features, and treatment of animal forms. The spread of Nok-type
figures in a wide area south of the Jos Plateau, covering southern
Kaduna state southeastward to Katsina Ala, south of the Benue River,
suggests a well-established culture that left traces still identifiable
in the lives of the peoples of the area today. Many of the distinctive
features of Nok art can also be traced in later developments of
Nigerian art produced in such places as Igbo Ukwu, Ife, Esie, and Benin
City.
Evidence of human occupation in Nigeria dates back thousands of years.
The oldest fossil remains found by archaeologists in the southwestern
area of Iwo Eleru, near Akure, have been dated to about 9000 bc. There
are isolated collections of ancient tools and artifacts of different
periods of the Stone Age, but the oldest recognizable evidence of an
organized society belongs to the Nok culture (c. 500 bc–c. ad 200).
Pottery head found at Nok, Nigeria. In the Jos Museum, Nigeria. Height
21 cm. [Credits : Frank Willett]Named for the village of Nok, site of
some of the finds, the ancient culture produced fine terra-cotta
figurines, which were accidentally discovered by tin miners on the Jos
Plateau in the 1930s. Initially Neolithic (New Stone Age), the Nok
culture made the transition to the Iron Age. Its people raised crops
and cattle and seem to have paid particular attention to personal
adornment, especially of the hair. Distinctive features of Nok art
include naturalism, stylized treatment of the mouth and eyes, relative
proportions of the human head, body, and feet, distortions of the human
facial features, and treatment of animal forms. The spread of Nok-type
figures in a wide area south of the Jos Plateau, covering southern
Kaduna state southeastward to Katsina Ala, south of the Benue River,
suggests a well-established culture that left traces still identifiable
in the lives of the peoples of the area today. Many of the distinctive
features of Nok art can also be traced in later developments of
Nigerian art produced in such places as Igbo Ukwu, Ife, Esie, and Benin
City.
Nigeria's rich cultural heritage
Nigeria's rich and varied cultural heritage derives from the mixture of
its different ethnic groups with Arabic and western European cultural
influences. Secret societies, such as Ekpo and Ekpe among the peoples
of the southeast, were formerly used as instruments of government,
while other institutions were associated with matrimony. According to
the Fulani custom of sharo (test of young manhood), rival suitors
underwent the ordeal of caning as a means of eliminating those who were
less persistent, while in Ibibio territory girls approaching
marriageable age were confined for several years in bride-fattening
rooms before they were given to their husbands. These and other customs
were discouraged by colonial administrators and missionaries. Some of
the more adaptable cultural institutions have been revived since
independence; these include Ekpo and Ekong societies for young boys in
parts of the southeast and the Ogboni society found in the Yoruba and
Edo areas of southern Nigeria.
its different ethnic groups with Arabic and western European cultural
influences. Secret societies, such as Ekpo and Ekpe among the peoples
of the southeast, were formerly used as instruments of government,
while other institutions were associated with matrimony. According to
the Fulani custom of sharo (test of young manhood), rival suitors
underwent the ordeal of caning as a means of eliminating those who were
less persistent, while in Ibibio territory girls approaching
marriageable age were confined for several years in bride-fattening
rooms before they were given to their husbands. These and other customs
were discouraged by colonial administrators and missionaries. Some of
the more adaptable cultural institutions have been revived since
independence; these include Ekpo and Ekong societies for young boys in
parts of the southeast and the Ogboni society found in the Yoruba and
Edo areas of southern Nigeria.
MARRIAGE, FAMILY, AND KINSHIP
arriage. There are three types of marriage in Nigeria today: religious
marriage, civil marriage, and traditional marriage. A Nigerian couple
may decide to take part in one or all of these marriages. Religious
marriages, usually Christian or Muslim, are conducted according to the
norms of the respective religious teachings and take place in a church
or a mosque. Christian males are allowed only one wife, while Muslim
men can take up to four wives. Civil official weddings take place in a
government registry office. Men are allowed only one wife under a civil
wedding, regardless of religion. Traditional marriages usually are held
at the wife's house and are performed according to the customs of the
ethnic group involved. Most ethnic groups traditionally allow more than
one wife.
Depending on whom you ask, polygamy has both advantages and
disadvantages in Nigerian society. Some Nigerians see polygamy as a
divisive force in the family, often pitting one wife against another.
Others see polygamy as a unifying factor, creating a built-in support
system that allows wives to work as a team.
While Western ways of courtship and marriage are not unheard of, the
power of traditional values and the strong influence of the family mean
that traditional ways are usually followed, even in the cities and
among the elite. According to old customs, women did not have much
choice of whom they married, though the numbers of arranged marriages
are declining. It is also not uncommon for women to marry in their
teens, often to a much older man. In instances where there are already
one or more wives, it is the first wife's responsibility to look after
the newest wife and help her integrate into the family.
Many Nigerian ethnic groups follow the practice of offering a bride
price for an intended wife. Unlike a dowry, in which the woman would
bring something of material value to the marriage, a bride price is
some form of compensation the husband must pay before he can marry a
wife. A bride price can take the form of money, cattle, wine, or other
valuable goods paid to the woman's family, but it also can take a more
subtle form. Men might contribute money to the education of an intended
wife or help to establish her in a small-scale business or agricultural
endeavor. This form of bride price is often incorporated as part of the
wooing process. While women who leave their husbands will be welcomed
back into their families, they often need a justification for breaking
the marriage. If the husband is seen as having treated his wife well,
he can expect to have the bride price repaid.
Though customs vary from group to group, traditional weddings are often
full of dancing and lively music. There is also lots of excitement and
cultural displays. For example, the Yoruba have a practice in which the
bride and two or three other women come out covered from head to toe in
a white shroud. It is the groom's job to identify his wife from among
the shrouded women to show how well he knows his wife.
Divorce is quite common in Nigeria. Marriage is more of a social
contract made to ensure the continuation of family lines rather than a
union based on love and emotional connections. It is not uncommon for a
husband and wife to live in separate homes and to be extremely
independent of one another. In most ethnic groups, either the man or
the woman can end the marriage. If the woman leaves her husband, she
will often be taken as a second or third wife of another man. If this
is the case, the new husband is responsible for repaying the bride
price to the former husband. Children of a divorced woman are normally
accepted into the new family as well, without any problems.
Domestic Unit. The majority of Nigerian families are very large by
Western standards. Many Nigerian men take more than one wife. In some
ethnic groups, the greater the number of children, the greater a man's
standing in the eyes of his peers. Family units of ten or more are not
uncommon.
In a polygamous family, each wife is responsible for feeding and caring
for her own children, though the wives often help each other when
needed. The wives also will take turns feeding their husband so that
the cost of his food is spread equally between or among the wives.
Husbands are the authority figures in the household, and many are not
used to their ideas or wishes being challenged.
In most Nigerian cultures, the father has his crops to tend to, while
his wives will have their own jobs, whether they be tending the family
garden, processing palm oil, or selling vegetables in the local market.
Children may attend school. When they return home, the older boys will
help their father with his work, while the girls and younger boys will
go to their mothers.
Inheritance. For many Nigerian ethnic groups, such as the Hausa and the
Igbo, inheritance is basically a male affair. Though women have a legal
right to inheritance in Nigeria, they often receive nothing. This is a
reflection of the forced economic independence many women live under.
While their husbands are alive, wives are often responsible for
providing for themselves and their children. Little changes
economically after the death of the husband. Property and wealth are
usually passed on to sons, if they are old enough, or to other male
relatives, such as brothers or uncles.
For the Fulani, if a man dies, his brother inherits his property and
his wife. The wife usually returns to live with her family, but she may
move in with her husband's brother and become his wife.
Kin Groups. While men dominate Igbo society, women play an important
role in kinship. All Igbos, men and women, have close ties to their
mother's clan, which usually lives in a different village. When an Igbo
dies, the body is usually sent back to his mother's village to be
buried with his mother's kin. If an Igbo is disgraced or cast out of
his community, his mother's kin will often take him in.
For the Hausa, however, there is not much of a sense of wide-ranging
kinship. Hausa society is based on the nuclear family. There is a sense
of a larger extended family, including married siblings and their
families, but there is little kinship beyond that. However, the idea of
blood being thicker than water is very strong in Hausa society. For
this reason, many Hausas will try to stretch familial relationships to
the broader idea of clan or tribe to diffuse tensions between or among
neighbors.
SOCIALIZATION
Infant Care. Newborns in Nigerian societies are regarded with pride.
They represent a community's and a family's future and often are the
main reason for many marriages.
Throughout Nigeria, the bond between mother and child is very strong.
During the first few years of a child's life, the mother is never far
away. Nigerian women place great importance on breast-feeding and the
bond that it creates between mother and child. Children are often not
weaned off their mother's milk until they are toddlers.
Children who are too young to walk or get around on their own are
carried on their mother's backs, secured by a broad cloth that is tied
around the baby and fastened at the mother's breasts. Women will often
carry their children on their backs while they perform their daily
chores or work in the fields.
Child Rearing and Education. When children reach the age of about four
or five, they often are expected to start performing a share of the
household duties. As the children get older, their responsibilities
grow. Young men are expected to help their fathers in the fields or
tend the livestock. Young women help with the cooking, fetch water, or
do laundry. These tasks help the children learn how to become
productive members of their family and community. As children, many
Nigerians learn that laziness is not acceptable; everyone is expected
to contribute.
While children in most Nigerian societies have responsibilities, they
also are allowed enough leeway to be children. Youngsters playing with
homemade wooden dolls and trucks, or groups of boys playing soccer are
common sights in any Nigerian village.
In many Nigerian ethnic groups, the education of children is a
community responsibility. For example,
Nigerian people at a market. Food plays a central role in the rituals
of all ethnic groups in Nigeria.
Nigerian people at a market. Food plays a central role in the rituals
of all ethnic groups in Nigeria.
in the Igbo culture the training of children is the work of both men
and women, within the family and outside it. Neighbors often look after
youngsters while parents may be busy with other chores. It is not
strange to see a man disciplining a child who is not his own.
All Nigerian children are supposed to have access to a local elementary
school. While the government aims to provide universal education for
both boys and girls, the number of girls in class is usually much lower
than the number of boys. Sending every child in a family to school can
often put a lot of strain on a family. The family will lose the child's
help around the house during school hours and will have to pay for
uniforms and supplies. If parents are forced to send one child to
school over another, many will choose to educate boys before girls.
marriage, civil marriage, and traditional marriage. A Nigerian couple
may decide to take part in one or all of these marriages. Religious
marriages, usually Christian or Muslim, are conducted according to the
norms of the respective religious teachings and take place in a church
or a mosque. Christian males are allowed only one wife, while Muslim
men can take up to four wives. Civil official weddings take place in a
government registry office. Men are allowed only one wife under a civil
wedding, regardless of religion. Traditional marriages usually are held
at the wife's house and are performed according to the customs of the
ethnic group involved. Most ethnic groups traditionally allow more than
one wife.
Depending on whom you ask, polygamy has both advantages and
disadvantages in Nigerian society. Some Nigerians see polygamy as a
divisive force in the family, often pitting one wife against another.
Others see polygamy as a unifying factor, creating a built-in support
system that allows wives to work as a team.
While Western ways of courtship and marriage are not unheard of, the
power of traditional values and the strong influence of the family mean
that traditional ways are usually followed, even in the cities and
among the elite. According to old customs, women did not have much
choice of whom they married, though the numbers of arranged marriages
are declining. It is also not uncommon for women to marry in their
teens, often to a much older man. In instances where there are already
one or more wives, it is the first wife's responsibility to look after
the newest wife and help her integrate into the family.
Many Nigerian ethnic groups follow the practice of offering a bride
price for an intended wife. Unlike a dowry, in which the woman would
bring something of material value to the marriage, a bride price is
some form of compensation the husband must pay before he can marry a
wife. A bride price can take the form of money, cattle, wine, or other
valuable goods paid to the woman's family, but it also can take a more
subtle form. Men might contribute money to the education of an intended
wife or help to establish her in a small-scale business or agricultural
endeavor. This form of bride price is often incorporated as part of the
wooing process. While women who leave their husbands will be welcomed
back into their families, they often need a justification for breaking
the marriage. If the husband is seen as having treated his wife well,
he can expect to have the bride price repaid.
Though customs vary from group to group, traditional weddings are often
full of dancing and lively music. There is also lots of excitement and
cultural displays. For example, the Yoruba have a practice in which the
bride and two or three other women come out covered from head to toe in
a white shroud. It is the groom's job to identify his wife from among
the shrouded women to show how well he knows his wife.
Divorce is quite common in Nigeria. Marriage is more of a social
contract made to ensure the continuation of family lines rather than a
union based on love and emotional connections. It is not uncommon for a
husband and wife to live in separate homes and to be extremely
independent of one another. In most ethnic groups, either the man or
the woman can end the marriage. If the woman leaves her husband, she
will often be taken as a second or third wife of another man. If this
is the case, the new husband is responsible for repaying the bride
price to the former husband. Children of a divorced woman are normally
accepted into the new family as well, without any problems.
Domestic Unit. The majority of Nigerian families are very large by
Western standards. Many Nigerian men take more than one wife. In some
ethnic groups, the greater the number of children, the greater a man's
standing in the eyes of his peers. Family units of ten or more are not
uncommon.
In a polygamous family, each wife is responsible for feeding and caring
for her own children, though the wives often help each other when
needed. The wives also will take turns feeding their husband so that
the cost of his food is spread equally between or among the wives.
Husbands are the authority figures in the household, and many are not
used to their ideas or wishes being challenged.
In most Nigerian cultures, the father has his crops to tend to, while
his wives will have their own jobs, whether they be tending the family
garden, processing palm oil, or selling vegetables in the local market.
Children may attend school. When they return home, the older boys will
help their father with his work, while the girls and younger boys will
go to their mothers.
Inheritance. For many Nigerian ethnic groups, such as the Hausa and the
Igbo, inheritance is basically a male affair. Though women have a legal
right to inheritance in Nigeria, they often receive nothing. This is a
reflection of the forced economic independence many women live under.
While their husbands are alive, wives are often responsible for
providing for themselves and their children. Little changes
economically after the death of the husband. Property and wealth are
usually passed on to sons, if they are old enough, or to other male
relatives, such as brothers or uncles.
For the Fulani, if a man dies, his brother inherits his property and
his wife. The wife usually returns to live with her family, but she may
move in with her husband's brother and become his wife.
Kin Groups. While men dominate Igbo society, women play an important
role in kinship. All Igbos, men and women, have close ties to their
mother's clan, which usually lives in a different village. When an Igbo
dies, the body is usually sent back to his mother's village to be
buried with his mother's kin. If an Igbo is disgraced or cast out of
his community, his mother's kin will often take him in.
For the Hausa, however, there is not much of a sense of wide-ranging
kinship. Hausa society is based on the nuclear family. There is a sense
of a larger extended family, including married siblings and their
families, but there is little kinship beyond that. However, the idea of
blood being thicker than water is very strong in Hausa society. For
this reason, many Hausas will try to stretch familial relationships to
the broader idea of clan or tribe to diffuse tensions between or among
neighbors.
SOCIALIZATION
Infant Care. Newborns in Nigerian societies are regarded with pride.
They represent a community's and a family's future and often are the
main reason for many marriages.
Throughout Nigeria, the bond between mother and child is very strong.
During the first few years of a child's life, the mother is never far
away. Nigerian women place great importance on breast-feeding and the
bond that it creates between mother and child. Children are often not
weaned off their mother's milk until they are toddlers.
Children who are too young to walk or get around on their own are
carried on their mother's backs, secured by a broad cloth that is tied
around the baby and fastened at the mother's breasts. Women will often
carry their children on their backs while they perform their daily
chores or work in the fields.
Child Rearing and Education. When children reach the age of about four
or five, they often are expected to start performing a share of the
household duties. As the children get older, their responsibilities
grow. Young men are expected to help their fathers in the fields or
tend the livestock. Young women help with the cooking, fetch water, or
do laundry. These tasks help the children learn how to become
productive members of their family and community. As children, many
Nigerians learn that laziness is not acceptable; everyone is expected
to contribute.
While children in most Nigerian societies have responsibilities, they
also are allowed enough leeway to be children. Youngsters playing with
homemade wooden dolls and trucks, or groups of boys playing soccer are
common sights in any Nigerian village.
In many Nigerian ethnic groups, the education of children is a
community responsibility. For example,
Nigerian people at a market. Food plays a central role in the rituals
of all ethnic groups in Nigeria.
Nigerian people at a market. Food plays a central role in the rituals
of all ethnic groups in Nigeria.
in the Igbo culture the training of children is the work of both men
and women, within the family and outside it. Neighbors often look after
youngsters while parents may be busy with other chores. It is not
strange to see a man disciplining a child who is not his own.
All Nigerian children are supposed to have access to a local elementary
school. While the government aims to provide universal education for
both boys and girls, the number of girls in class is usually much lower
than the number of boys. Sending every child in a family to school can
often put a lot of strain on a family. The family will lose the child's
help around the house during school hours and will have to pay for
uniforms and supplies. If parents are forced to send one child to
school over another, many will choose to educate boys before girls.
MARRIAGE, FAMILY, AND KINSHIP
Marriage. There are three types of marriage in Nigeria today: religious
marriage, civil marriage, and traditional marriage. A Nigerian couple
may decide to take part in one or all of these marriages. Religious
marriages, usually Christian or Muslim, are conducted according to the
norms of the respective religious teachings and take place in a church
or a mosque. Christian males are allowed only one wife, while Muslim
men can take up to four wives. Civil official weddings take place in a
government registry office. Men are allowed only one wife under a civil
wedding, regardless of religion. Traditional marriages usually are held
at the wife's house and are performed according to the customs of the
ethnic group involved. Most ethnic groups traditionally allow more than
one wife.
Depending on whom you ask, polygamy has both advantages and
disadvantages in Nigerian society. Some Nigerians see polygamy as a
divisive force in the family, often pitting one wife against another.
Others see polygamy as a unifying factor, creating a built-in support
system that allows wives to work as a team.
While Western ways of courtship and marriage are not unheard of, the
power of traditional values and the strong influence of the family mean
that traditional ways are usually followed, even in the cities and
among the elite. According to old customs, women did not have much
choice of whom they married, though the numbers of arranged marriages
are declining. It is also not uncommon for women to marry in their
teens, often to a much older man. In instances where there are already
one or more wives, it is the first wife's responsibility to look after
the newest wife and help her integrate into the family.
Many Nigerian ethnic groups follow the practice of offering a bride
price for an intended wife. Unlike a dowry, in which the woman would
bring something of material value to the marriage, a bride price is
some form of compensation the husband must pay before he can marry a
wife. A bride price can take the form of money, cattle, wine, or other
valuable goods paid to the woman's family, but it also can take a more
subtle form. Men might contribute money to the education of an intended
wife or help to establish her in a small-scale business or agricultural
endeavor. This form of bride price is often incorporated as part of the
wooing process. While women who leave their husbands will be welcomed
back into their families, they often need a justification for breaking
the marriage. If the husband is seen as having treated his wife well,
he can expect to have the bride price repaid.
Though customs vary from group to group, traditional weddings are often
full of dancing and lively music. There is also lots of excitement and
cultural displays. For example, the Yoruba have a practice in which the
bride and two or three other women come out covered from head to toe in
a white shroud. It is the groom's job to identify his wife from among
the shrouded women to show how well he knows his wife.
Divorce is quite common in Nigeria. Marriage is more of a social
contract made to ensure the continuation of family lines rather than a
union based on love and emotional connections. It is not uncommon for a
husband and wife to live in separate homes and to be extremely
independent of one another. In most ethnic groups, either the man or
the woman can end the marriage. If the woman leaves her husband, she
will often be taken as a second or third wife of another man. If this
is the case, the new husband is responsible for repaying the bride
price to the former husband. Children of a divorced woman are normally
accepted into the new family as well, without any problems.
Domestic Unit. The majority of Nigerian families are very large by
Western standards. Many Nigerian men take more than one wife. In some
ethnic groups, the greater the number of children, the greater a man's
standing in the eyes of his peers. Family units of ten or more are not
uncommon.
In a polygamous family, each wife is responsible for feeding and caring
for her own children, though the wives often help each other when
needed. The wives also will take turns feeding their husband so that
the cost of his food is spread equally between or among the wives.
Husbands are the authority figures in the household, and many are not
used to their ideas or wishes being challenged.
In most Nigerian cultures, the father has his crops to tend to, while
his wives will have their own jobs, whether they be tending the family
garden, processing palm oil, or selling vegetables in the local market.
Children may attend school. When they return home, the older boys will
help their father with his work, while the girls and younger boys will
go to their mothers.
Inheritance. For many Nigerian ethnic groups, such as the Hausa and the
Igbo, inheritance is basically a male affair. Though women have a legal
right to inheritance in Nigeria, they often receive nothing. This is a
reflection of the forced economic independence many women live under.
While their husbands are alive, wives are often responsible for
providing for themselves and their children. Little changes
economically after the death of the husband. Property and wealth are
usually passed on to sons, if they are old enough, or to other male
relatives, such as brothers or uncles.
For the Fulani, if a man dies, his brother inherits his property and
his wife. The wife usually returns to live with her family, but she may
move in with her husband's brother and become his wife.
Kin Groups. While men dominate Igbo society, women play an important
role in kinship. All Igbos, men and women, have close ties to their
mother's clan, which usually lives in a different village. When an Igbo
dies, the body is usually sent back to his mother's village to be
buried with his mother's kin. If an Igbo is disgraced or cast out of
his community, his mother's kin will often take him in.
For the Hausa, however, there is not much of a sense of wide-ranging
kinship. Hausa society is based on the nuclear family. There is a sense
of a larger extended family, including married siblings and their
families, but there is little kinship beyond that. However, the idea of
blood being thicker than water is very strong in Hausa society. For
this reason, many Hausas will try to stretch familial relationships to
the broader idea of clan or tribe to diffuse tensions between or among
neighbors.
SOCIALIZATION
Infant Care. Newborns in Nigerian societies are regarded with pride.
They represent a community's and a family's future and often are the
main reason for many marriages.
Throughout Nigeria, the bond between mother and child is very strong.
During the first few years of a child's life, the mother is never far
away. Nigerian women place great importance on breast-feeding and the
bond that it creates between mother and child. Children are often not
weaned off their mother's milk until they are toddlers.
Children who are too young to walk or get around on their own are
carried on their mother's backs, secured by a broad cloth that is tied
around the baby and fastened at the mother's breasts. Women will often
carry their children on their backs while they perform their daily
chores or work in the fields.
Child Rearing and Education. When children reach the age of about four
or five, they often are expected to start performing a share of the
household duties. As the children get older, their responsibilities
grow. Young men are expected to help their fathers in the fields or
tend the livestock. Young women help with the cooking, fetch water, or
do laundry. These tasks help the children learn how to become
productive members of their family and community. As children, many
Nigerians learn that laziness is not acceptable; everyone is expected
to contribute.
While children in most Nigerian societies have responsibilities, they
also are allowed enough leeway to be children. Youngsters playing with
homemade wooden dolls and trucks, or groups of boys playing soccer are
common sights in any Nigerian village.
In many Nigerian ethnic groups, the education of children is a
community responsibility. For example,
Nigerian people at a market. Food plays a central role in the rituals
of all ethnic groups in Nigeria.
Nigerian people at a market. Food plays a central role in the rituals
of all ethnic groups in Nigeria.
in the Igbo culture the training of children is the work of both men
and women, within the family and outside it. Neighbors often look after
youngsters while parents may be busy with other chores. It is not
strange to see a man disciplining a child who is not his own.
All Nigerian children are supposed to have access to a local elementary
school. While the government aims to provide universal education for
both boys and girls, the number of girls in class is usually much lower
than the number of boys. Sending every child in a family to school can
often put a lot of strain on a family. The family will lose the child's
help around the house during school hours and will have to pay for
uniforms and supplies. If parents are forced to send one child to
school over another, many will choose to educate boys before girls.
POLITICAL LIFE
Government. Nigeria is a republic, with the president acting as both
head of state and head of government. Nigeria has had a long history of
coups d'états, military rule, and dictatorship. However, this pattern
was broken on 29 May 1999 as Nigeria's current president, Olusegun
Obasanjo, took office following popular elections. Under the current
constitution, presidential elections are to be held every four years,
with no president serving more than two terms in office. The Nigerian
legislature consists of two houses: a Senate and a House of
Representatives. All legislators are elected to four-year terms.
Nigeria's judicial branch is headed by a Supreme Court, whose members
were appointed by the Provisional Ruling Council, which ruled Nigeria
during its recent transition to democracy. All Nigerians over age
eighteen are eligible to vote.
Leadership and Political Officials. A wealthy political elite dominates
political life in Nigeria. The relationship between the political elite
and ordinary Nigerians is not unlike that between nobles and commoners.
Nigerian leaders, whether as members of a military regime or one of
Nigeria's short-lived civilian governments, have a history of doing
whatever it takes to stay in power and to hold on to the wealth that
this power has given them.
Rural Nigerians tend to accept this noble-peasant system of politics.
Low levels of education and literacy mean that many people in rural
areas are not fully aware of the political process or how to affect it.
Their relative isolation from the rest of the country means that many
do not even think of politics. There is a common feeling in many rural
areas that the average person cannot affect the politics of the
country, so there is no reason to try.
Urban Nigerians tend to be much more vocal in their support of or
opposition to their leaders. Urban problems of housing, unemployment,
health care, sanitation, and traffic tend to mobilize people into
political action and public displays of dissatisfaction.
Political parties were outlawed under the Abacha regime, and only came
back into being after his death. As of the 1999 presidential elections,
there were three main political parties in Nigeria: the People's
Democratic Party (PDP), the All Peoples Party (APP), and the Alliance
for Democracy (AD). The PDP is the party of President Obasanjo. It grew
out of support for opposition leaders who were imprisoned by the
military government in the early 1990s. The PDP is widely believed to
have received heavy financial assistance from the military during the
1999 elections. The APP is led by politicians who had close ties to the
Abacha regime. The AD is a party led by followers of the late Moshood
Abiola, the Yoruba politician who won the general election in 1993,
only to be sent to prison by the military regime.
Social Problems and Control. Perhaps Nigeria's greatest social problem
is the internal violence plaguing the nation. Interethnic fighting
throughout the country, religious rioting between Muslims and
non-Muslims over the creation of Shari'a law (strict Islamic law) in
the northern states, and political confrontations between ethnic
minorities and backers of oil companies often spark bloody
confrontations that can last days or even months. When violence of this
type breaks out, national and state police try to control it. However,
the police themselves are often accused of some of the worst violence.
In some instances, curfews and martial law have been imposed in
specific areas to try to stem outbreaks of unrest.
Poverty and lack of opportunity for many young people, especially in
urban areas, have led to major crime. Lagos is considered one of the
most dangerous cities in West Africa due to its incredibly high crime
rate. The police are charged with controlling crime, but their lack of
success often leads to vigilante justice.
In some rural areas there are some more traditional ways of addressing
social problems. In many ethnic groups, such as the Igbo and the
Yoruba, men are organized into secret societies. Initiated members of
these societies often dress in masks and palm leaves to masquerade as
the physical embodiment of traditional spirits to help maintain social
order. Through ritual dance, these men will give warnings about
problems with an individual's or community's morality in a given
situation. Because belief in witchcraft and evil spirits is high
throughout Nigeria, this kind of public accusation can instill fear in
people and cause them to mend their ways. Members of secret societies
also can act as judges or intermediaries in disputes.
Military Activity. Nigeria's military consists of an army, a navy, an
air force, and a police force. The minimum age for military service is
eighteen.
The Nigerian military is the largest and best-equipped military in West
Africa. As a member of the Economic Community of West African States
(ECOWAS), Nigeria is the major contributor to the organization's
military branch, known as ECOMOG. Nigerian troops made up the vast
majority of the ECOMOG forces deployed to restore peace following civil
wars in Liberia, Guinea-Bissau, and Sierra Leone. Public
dissatisfaction with Nigeria's participation in the Sierra Leonean
crisis was extremely high due to high casualty rates among the Nigerian
soldiers. Nigeria pledged to pull out of Sierra Leone in 1999,
prompting the United Nations to send in peacekeepers in an attempt stem
the violence. While the foreign forces in Sierra Leone are now under
the mandate of the United Nations, Nigerian troops still make up the
majority of the peacekeepers.
Nigeria has a long-running border dispute with Cameroon over the
mineral-rich Bakasi Peninsula, and the two nations have engaged in a
series of cross-boarder skirmishes. Nigeria, Cameroon, Niger, and Chad
also have a long-running border dispute over territory in the Lake Chad
region, which also has led to some fighting across the borders.
head of state and head of government. Nigeria has had a long history of
coups d'états, military rule, and dictatorship. However, this pattern
was broken on 29 May 1999 as Nigeria's current president, Olusegun
Obasanjo, took office following popular elections. Under the current
constitution, presidential elections are to be held every four years,
with no president serving more than two terms in office. The Nigerian
legislature consists of two houses: a Senate and a House of
Representatives. All legislators are elected to four-year terms.
Nigeria's judicial branch is headed by a Supreme Court, whose members
were appointed by the Provisional Ruling Council, which ruled Nigeria
during its recent transition to democracy. All Nigerians over age
eighteen are eligible to vote.
Leadership and Political Officials. A wealthy political elite dominates
political life in Nigeria. The relationship between the political elite
and ordinary Nigerians is not unlike that between nobles and commoners.
Nigerian leaders, whether as members of a military regime or one of
Nigeria's short-lived civilian governments, have a history of doing
whatever it takes to stay in power and to hold on to the wealth that
this power has given them.
Rural Nigerians tend to accept this noble-peasant system of politics.
Low levels of education and literacy mean that many people in rural
areas are not fully aware of the political process or how to affect it.
Their relative isolation from the rest of the country means that many
do not even think of politics. There is a common feeling in many rural
areas that the average person cannot affect the politics of the
country, so there is no reason to try.
Urban Nigerians tend to be much more vocal in their support of or
opposition to their leaders. Urban problems of housing, unemployment,
health care, sanitation, and traffic tend to mobilize people into
political action and public displays of dissatisfaction.
Political parties were outlawed under the Abacha regime, and only came
back into being after his death. As of the 1999 presidential elections,
there were three main political parties in Nigeria: the People's
Democratic Party (PDP), the All Peoples Party (APP), and the Alliance
for Democracy (AD). The PDP is the party of President Obasanjo. It grew
out of support for opposition leaders who were imprisoned by the
military government in the early 1990s. The PDP is widely believed to
have received heavy financial assistance from the military during the
1999 elections. The APP is led by politicians who had close ties to the
Abacha regime. The AD is a party led by followers of the late Moshood
Abiola, the Yoruba politician who won the general election in 1993,
only to be sent to prison by the military regime.
Social Problems and Control. Perhaps Nigeria's greatest social problem
is the internal violence plaguing the nation. Interethnic fighting
throughout the country, religious rioting between Muslims and
non-Muslims over the creation of Shari'a law (strict Islamic law) in
the northern states, and political confrontations between ethnic
minorities and backers of oil companies often spark bloody
confrontations that can last days or even months. When violence of this
type breaks out, national and state police try to control it. However,
the police themselves are often accused of some of the worst violence.
In some instances, curfews and martial law have been imposed in
specific areas to try to stem outbreaks of unrest.
Poverty and lack of opportunity for many young people, especially in
urban areas, have led to major crime. Lagos is considered one of the
most dangerous cities in West Africa due to its incredibly high crime
rate. The police are charged with controlling crime, but their lack of
success often leads to vigilante justice.
In some rural areas there are some more traditional ways of addressing
social problems. In many ethnic groups, such as the Igbo and the
Yoruba, men are organized into secret societies. Initiated members of
these societies often dress in masks and palm leaves to masquerade as
the physical embodiment of traditional spirits to help maintain social
order. Through ritual dance, these men will give warnings about
problems with an individual's or community's morality in a given
situation. Because belief in witchcraft and evil spirits is high
throughout Nigeria, this kind of public accusation can instill fear in
people and cause them to mend their ways. Members of secret societies
also can act as judges or intermediaries in disputes.
Military Activity. Nigeria's military consists of an army, a navy, an
air force, and a police force. The minimum age for military service is
eighteen.
The Nigerian military is the largest and best-equipped military in West
Africa. As a member of the Economic Community of West African States
(ECOWAS), Nigeria is the major contributor to the organization's
military branch, known as ECOMOG. Nigerian troops made up the vast
majority of the ECOMOG forces deployed to restore peace following civil
wars in Liberia, Guinea-Bissau, and Sierra Leone. Public
dissatisfaction with Nigeria's participation in the Sierra Leonean
crisis was extremely high due to high casualty rates among the Nigerian
soldiers. Nigeria pledged to pull out of Sierra Leone in 1999,
prompting the United Nations to send in peacekeepers in an attempt stem
the violence. While the foreign forces in Sierra Leone are now under
the mandate of the United Nations, Nigerian troops still make up the
majority of the peacekeepers.
Nigeria has a long-running border dispute with Cameroon over the
mineral-rich Bakasi Peninsula, and the two nations have engaged in a
series of cross-boarder skirmishes. Nigeria, Cameroon, Niger, and Chad
also have a long-running border dispute over territory in the Lake Chad
region, which also has led to some fighting across the borders.
HISTORY AND ETHNIC RELATIONS
Emergence of the Nation. Every ethnic group in Nigeria has its own stories of where its ancestors came from. These vary from tales of people descending from the sky to stories of migration from far-off places. Archaeologists have found evidence of Neolithic humans who inhabited what is now Nigeria as far back as 12,000 B.C.E.
The histories of the people in northern and southern Nigeria prior to colonization followed vastly different paths. The first recorded empire in present-day Nigeria was centered in the north at Kanem-Borno, near Lake Chad. This empire came to power during the eighth century C.E. By the thirteenth century, many Hausa states began to emerge in the region as well.
Trans-Sahara trade with North Africans and Arabs began to transform these northern societies greatly. Increased contact with the Islamic world led to the conversion of the Kanem-Borno Empire to Islam in the eleventh century. This led to a ripple effect of conversions throughout the north. Islam brought with it changes in law, education, and politics.
The trans-Sahara trade also brought with it revolutions in wealth and class structure. As the centuries went on, strict Islamists, many of whom were poor Fulani, began to tire of increasing corruption, excessive taxation, and unfair treatment of the poor. In 1804 the Fulani launched a jihad, or Muslim holy war, against the Hausa states in an attempt to cleanse them of these non-Muslim behaviors and to reintroduce proper Islamic ways. By 1807 the last Hausa state had fallen. The Fulani victors founded the Sokoto Caliphate, which grew to become the largest state in West Africa until its conquest by the British in 1903.
In the south, the Oyo Empire grew to become the most powerful Yoruban society during the sixteenth century. Along the coast, the Edo people established the Benin Empire (not to be confused with the present-day country of Benin to the west), which reached its height of power in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.
As in the north, outsiders heavily influenced the societies of southern Nigeria. Contact with Europeans began with the arrival of Portuguese ships in 1486. The British, French, and Dutch soon followed. Soon after their arrival, the trade in slaves replaced the original trade in goods. Many of the coastal communities began selling their neighbors, whom they had captured in wars and raids, to the Europeans in exchange for things such as guns, metal, jewelry, and liquor.
The slave trade had major social consequences for the Africans. Violence and intertribal warfare increased as the search for slaves intensified. The increased wealth accompanying the slave trade began to change social structures in the area. Leadership, which had been based on tradition and ritual, soon became based on wealth and economic power.
After more than 350 years of slave trading, the British decided that the slave trade was immoral and, in 1807, ordered it stopped. They began to force their newfound morality on the Nigerians. Many local leaders, however, continued to sell captives to illegal slave traders. This lead to confrontations with the British Navy, which took on the responsibility of enforcing the slave embargo. In 1851 the British attacked Lagos to try to stem the flow of slaves from the area. By 1861 the British government had annexed the city and established its first official colony in Nigeria.
As the nonslave trade began to flourish, so, too, did the Nigerian economy. A new economy based on raw materials, agricultural products, and locally manufactured goods saw the growth of a new class of Nigerian merchants. These merchants were heavily influenced by Western ways. Many soon became involved in politics, often criticizing chiefs for keeping to their traditional ways. A new divide within
Central Ibadan, the second-largest city. Nigeria is the most densely populated country in Africa.
Central Ibadan, the second-largest city. Nigeria is the most densely populated country in Africa.
the local communities began to develop, in terms of both wealth and politics. Because being a successful merchant was based on production and merit, not on traditional community standing, many former slaves and lower-class people soon found that they could advance quickly up the social ladder. It was not unusual to find a former slave transformed into the richest, most powerful man in the area.
Christian missionaries brought Western-style education to Nigeria as Christianity quickly spread throughout the south. The mission schools created an educated African elite who also sought increased contact with Europe and a Westernization of Nigeria.
In 1884, as European countries engaged in a race to consolidate their African territories, the British Army and local merchant militias set out to conquer the Africans who refused to recognize British rule. In 1914, after squelching the last of the indigenous opposition, Britain officially established the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria.
The histories of the people in northern and southern Nigeria prior to colonization followed vastly different paths. The first recorded empire in present-day Nigeria was centered in the north at Kanem-Borno, near Lake Chad. This empire came to power during the eighth century C.E. By the thirteenth century, many Hausa states began to emerge in the region as well.
Trans-Sahara trade with North Africans and Arabs began to transform these northern societies greatly. Increased contact with the Islamic world led to the conversion of the Kanem-Borno Empire to Islam in the eleventh century. This led to a ripple effect of conversions throughout the north. Islam brought with it changes in law, education, and politics.
The trans-Sahara trade also brought with it revolutions in wealth and class structure. As the centuries went on, strict Islamists, many of whom were poor Fulani, began to tire of increasing corruption, excessive taxation, and unfair treatment of the poor. In 1804 the Fulani launched a jihad, or Muslim holy war, against the Hausa states in an attempt to cleanse them of these non-Muslim behaviors and to reintroduce proper Islamic ways. By 1807 the last Hausa state had fallen. The Fulani victors founded the Sokoto Caliphate, which grew to become the largest state in West Africa until its conquest by the British in 1903.
In the south, the Oyo Empire grew to become the most powerful Yoruban society during the sixteenth century. Along the coast, the Edo people established the Benin Empire (not to be confused with the present-day country of Benin to the west), which reached its height of power in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.
As in the north, outsiders heavily influenced the societies of southern Nigeria. Contact with Europeans began with the arrival of Portuguese ships in 1486. The British, French, and Dutch soon followed. Soon after their arrival, the trade in slaves replaced the original trade in goods. Many of the coastal communities began selling their neighbors, whom they had captured in wars and raids, to the Europeans in exchange for things such as guns, metal, jewelry, and liquor.
The slave trade had major social consequences for the Africans. Violence and intertribal warfare increased as the search for slaves intensified. The increased wealth accompanying the slave trade began to change social structures in the area. Leadership, which had been based on tradition and ritual, soon became based on wealth and economic power.
After more than 350 years of slave trading, the British decided that the slave trade was immoral and, in 1807, ordered it stopped. They began to force their newfound morality on the Nigerians. Many local leaders, however, continued to sell captives to illegal slave traders. This lead to confrontations with the British Navy, which took on the responsibility of enforcing the slave embargo. In 1851 the British attacked Lagos to try to stem the flow of slaves from the area. By 1861 the British government had annexed the city and established its first official colony in Nigeria.
As the nonslave trade began to flourish, so, too, did the Nigerian economy. A new economy based on raw materials, agricultural products, and locally manufactured goods saw the growth of a new class of Nigerian merchants. These merchants were heavily influenced by Western ways. Many soon became involved in politics, often criticizing chiefs for keeping to their traditional ways. A new divide within
Central Ibadan, the second-largest city. Nigeria is the most densely populated country in Africa.
Central Ibadan, the second-largest city. Nigeria is the most densely populated country in Africa.
the local communities began to develop, in terms of both wealth and politics. Because being a successful merchant was based on production and merit, not on traditional community standing, many former slaves and lower-class people soon found that they could advance quickly up the social ladder. It was not unusual to find a former slave transformed into the richest, most powerful man in the area.
Christian missionaries brought Western-style education to Nigeria as Christianity quickly spread throughout the south. The mission schools created an educated African elite who also sought increased contact with Europe and a Westernization of Nigeria.
In 1884, as European countries engaged in a race to consolidate their African territories, the British Army and local merchant militias set out to conquer the Africans who refused to recognize British rule. In 1914, after squelching the last of the indigenous opposition, Britain officially established the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria.
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)